Candidate Name: Chikara Tendai Owen Registration Number: R0434163 Degree Programme: Master of Arts in Applied English Linguistics (MAAEL) Dissertation Title Identity and ideology in argumentative opinion columns. An Appraisal Linguistic analysis of Tafataona Mahoso s African Focus Supervisor Dr. Collen Sabao Student Release Form Title of Work: Identity and ideology in argumentative opinion columns. An Appraisal Linguistic analysis of Tafataona Mahoso s African Focus Author: Chikara Tendai Owen (Registration Number R0434163) Declaration I grant the Midlands State University Archives the right to avail a copy of my research for library circulation and to grant permission for quotation of my work in publications. The copyright of this work rests with me and and/or the university to which this dissertation was submitted. Date 11 November, 2014. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 2 Dedication I dedicate this work to the memory of my father, Michael Chikara, a man who taught me to love the written word teaching me to read thick adventure volumes like Wilbur Smith and what it means to be a man. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 3 Acknowledgements I wish to extend my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Collen Sabao. You have been an inspiration and the manner in which you constantly challenge me to be better is a powerful force that continually drives me. Thank you for being accommodating Chiremba. The odd hours and endless chats were a source of growth and soon, I hope, that title is coming. Thank you spans. My undergraduate supervisor, Ms P Mawire, thank you for your faith in me. The teaching staff in the English and Communication Department has become family to me, nurturing me academically over a period now totaling six years. The encouraging words have spurred me in more ways than can be imagined. I will always remember the efforts of the MAAEL teaching staff, Dr. Ernest Jakaza, Mr. Hugh Mangeya and Ms. Itayi Mariko to hammer the correct approach(es) into us. The Chairperson, Dr. H Ngoshi, thank you for your professionalism. I am also grateful to the many friends I made online on the Researchgate and LinkedIn pages. The input of these individuals who were kind enough to respond to my questions on Applied Linguistics proved invaluable. Though I cannot mention all of these individuals here I remain grateful for their input. My dear wife, Miriam Manatsa, I appreciate all your efforts my love and will definitely make up for all the time you sacrificed so you could give me time to study. I pray this puts a smile on your face and food on our table sweetheart. My mother, Mrs. Ellen Chikara (nee Mupiwa) who became my student as I undertook these studies you are definitely one of my best students and I am grateful for your tolerance, the kind listening ear, the empathy when the going got tough and for being my mum. I love you always. Theresa, Tinashe and Gladys thank you for the support. My students between 2009 and 2014, you have taught me so much and I appreciate you. Finally I acknowledge the most important person in my life, my hero, my Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. I have always stood tall on your shoulders and this is only the beginning of great things I believe. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 4 Abstract This dissertation focused on how resources of Appraisal are used in Opinion columns (particularly those by Tafataona Mahoso). While the research sought to uncover how these resources are utilized by Mahoso in his articles, it also sought to establish how the use of these helps create identity for the writer and those he writes about. The researcher employed the Appraisal framework which was seen as being located in the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach. The findings of the research showed initially that a bi-directional relationship exists between identity and ideology. The personae(s) that the author creates for himself through his use of linguistic resources that are attitudinal (affect and judgements particularly) was seen by the researcher as helping linguists in coming up with an approach towards establishing the generic tenets of the Opinion column Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 5 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to the study Research Design 10 Research Methodology 10 Theoretical Framework 11 Background and Rationale of Study Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction The Field of Discourse Analysis 15 Locating Genre for Present Study 19 Genre from an SFL Perspective 24 Generic Characteristics of Opinion Columns 25 Newspaper genre- A general overview 29 Particular generic tenets of Opinion Columns 29 Comparison of Op-Eds and Hard News 31 Exploration of Identity and Ideology 33 Identity 33 Ideology 36 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework Introduction 38 SFL Perspective and Appraisal 38 Key claims of SFL 39 History of SFL 46 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 6 SFL and Appraisal 47 Appraisal 48 Chapter 4: Data Analysis Introduction 52 Appraisal Theory and the Evaluative Key 52 Article Analysis: Is it time for the dollar to return? 55 Introduction 55 Appraisal and Textual Analysis 64 Article Analysis: The Zimbabwe we want vs. Zimbabwe we have 67 Introduction 67 Appraisal and Textual Analysis 84 Article Analysis: Anglo-Saxon crisis, Zim s moment in history 85 Introduction 85 Appraisal and Textual Analysis 98 Chapter 5 Introduction 100 Main Findings 100 Contributions of Study 105 Suggestions and Recommendations 106 Summary 106 References 108 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 7 Chapter 1 1.0 Introduction This study aims at examining language use in practical, real life settings and the effects thereof. It is the intention of this researcher to uncover how language use achieves certain effects-in this case how it helps create identity as well as ideologies. These two aspects will be explicated in detail. Humanity as explicated by Bloor and Bloor (1995) has struggled to understand how human language is structured and to explain how communication takes place . Studies in grammar can be seen as an attempt at achieving this aim yet these have never been comprehensive. Whereas Traditional Grammar (frequently called TG in Chomskyan circles) has tended to focus on written language and the rules of correct forms of the language, the work of Michael A. Halliday deals with both written and spoken language and focuses on the functions of language. Language, as asserted by Matienga (2013) serves to enable the expression of interpersonal meanings (such as)1 feelings, opinions, judgements, humour, and so on . The Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach regards language as a socio-semiotic system within which the Appraisal framework has its theoretical foundations and is the one most suited to this current study particularly when one considers the views and perspectives offered under the Appraisal framework within the SFL theory. The study will utilise articles by Tafataona Mahoso as samples in a study on how identity can be created in a piece of writing (specifically newspaper editorials) as well as how ideologies may be exposed (knowingly or not) by writers. The study intends to work from a Systemic Functional Linguistics perspective, which approach is synonymous with the work of M.A.K Halliday. Halliday s work has since been extended by other linguists such as David Morley whose name also features predominantly in Media Studies. The articles that this researcher intends to use in this study will be mainly from Zimbabwe, the 1 Brackets mine Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 8 year 2013, which period politically follows the demise of the Government of National Unity (GNU) in Zimbabwe. It is also a period of political schism which situation is apparent in the media landscape of the same period. The Baba Jukwa* and Mai Jukwa battles are an important sign of this schism with Baba Jukwa predominantly using the electronic media landscape to attack political persons and Amai Jukwa being an antagonistic character created by government controlled Zimpapers meant to counter Baba Jukwa. Both rogue characters were given substantial space in the media with Wilf Mbanga s The Daily News giving Baba Jukwa and The Herald newspaper dedicating a column every Monday to Amai Jukwa which the rogue character titled Political Mondays with Amai Jukwa. 1.1 Aims and Objectives of the study This study will analyse a selection of Tafataona Mahoso s African Focus columns in The Herald, The Patriot and The Sunday Mail with the hope of uncovering the form of language that the writer employs and how (or not) this language creates identities and ideology. The research will also try to highlight how the three meta-functions of language as explicated by the SFL approach are seen in the Mahoso articles. These metafunctions are ideational, interpersonal and the textual (Jakaza 2013) This study aims to uncover how texts of communities of shared feelings and values are created by opinion authors by using one of Zimbabwe s leading opinion columnists (in terms of the amount of material produced and in the public sphere). The researcher also seeks to uncover the linguistic mechanisms for the sharing of emotions, tastes and normative assessments, and in particular how writers/speakers construe for themselves particular authorial identities or personae. It is also concerned with how they align or disalign themselves with actual or potential respondents, and with how they construct for their texts an intended or ideal audience. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 9 The researcher hopes to contribute to scholarship on media genres particularly in the Op-Ed genre as the Opinion and Editorial columns are commonly referred to in major literature. This aim is arrived at after noting that the vast amount of literature there is in linguistics realting to media genres focus on other areas that are not Opinion columns. It is thus the aim of this research to uncover the salient issues in the genre and thus widen scholarship there. As a means of summating the aims and objectives of this study, the following questions should have answers at the end of the study:  How do opinion authors (Tafataona Mahoso in this particular case) use linguistic  How can we use the resources of the theory of Appraisal to analyse literary pieces which  What rhetorical patterns can be noted in Opinion columns?   resources to create identities and ideologies for others and themselves? are aimed at convincing their target audiences? Is it possible to establish a systemic pattern of argumentation in written media discourse? What are the textual structures of opinion columns in Zimbabwean newspapers compared to other journalistic cultures? These are some of the key questions that this research proposes to answer along with others on Opinion columns as a genre. 1.2 Research Design and Methodology The study aims to employ a predominantly descriptive approach. The researcher will analyse selected articles from Mahoso s column, African Focus and utilise Appraisal theory to do so. Through Critical Discourse Analysis an attempt will be made at exposing the identities, ideologies and power relations exposed in the articles. An attempt will also be made at approaching the study scientifically. To do so, the study will attempt to quantitatively analyse emerging trends from the articles used for the study. Martin and White (1997) attend to what has traditionally been dealt with under the heading of affect the means by which writers/speakers positively or negatively evaluate the entities, happenings and states-of-affairs with which their texts are concerned. Their approach took them beyond many traditional accounts of affect and they, in their ground-breaking book, The Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 10 Language of Evaluation, addressed not only the means by which speakers/writers overtly encode what they present as their own attitudes but also those means by which they more indirectly activate evaluative stances and position readers/listeners to supply their own assessments. These attitudinal evaluations are of interest to Martin and White not only because they reveal the speakers/writer s feelings and values but also because their expression can be related to the speaker s/writer s status or authority as construed by the text . What Martin and White call the writer s feelings and values relates to identity and ideology as this study will attempt to show. The study aims to be systemic in approach and aims to use the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) based theory of Appraisal (defined briefly by Chapel (1998) as quoted in Sabao (2013)) is a linguistic theory of Discourse Analysis (D.A) that takes into account the contextual dimensions of language. Seeing as it is that the opinion column is an argumentative type of discourse, this research intends to do a Pragma-Dialectical analysis of selected opinion columns. Seeing also that linguistics is a scientific approach to language this research will try to be as scientific as possible an be qualitative in approach. The qualitative approach where findings are explicated will be a major feature of this research. Where a need for an eclectic approach is seen as relevant the researcher intends to adopt such approach. The SFL theory has its origins in postulations by Michael Halliday and is a relatively young theoretical approach which however has origins in the work of JR Firth in the 1940s according to the website: http://www.isfla.org/Systemics/definition.html The theory according to the website is centered around the notion of language function. It accounts for the syntactic structure of language (placing the function of language i.e what language is and what language does) as central. In analyzing language SFL starts with the social context and looks at how language acts upon and is constrained by social context. Language is, in this theory, analysed in terms of four strata: context, semantics, lexico-grammar and phonology-graphology. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 11 Seeing the above, the researcher sees the theory as best suiting the current study particularly when one considers the Appraisal resources within the theory. As such these resources are the ones that this research will employ as a basis for analysis in a bid to uncover how the author creates and maintains identity and ideology through linguistic resources. 1.4 Background and Rationale of the Study Discourse is a particular way of talking about and understanding the world (or an aspect of the world) Jørgensen and Phillips (2002). This implies that written material is a form of discourse that talks about the world as well as helps us understand it. Discourse analysis, it has been learnt, can be used for a number of purposes. Jørgensen and Phillips (2002) argue that it can be a framework for the analysis of national identity , interrogate the significance of national identity for interaction between people in a workplace setting , help analyse how contesting claims to knowledge are consumed by media markets as well as observe the struggle between different knowledge claims which could be understood and empirically studied as a struggle between different discourses which represent different ways of understanding of the world and construct different identities for speakers . The emergent view from this is that as we write we engage in exercises of creating identities and thought patterns of ourselves and those we write about (knowingly or otherwise). There have been numerous studies of the print media as noted by Sabao (2013). The studies have however focused on hard news articles and editorials while little attention has been paid to opinion columns. It is necessary to engage opinion columns critically as a means to uncovering the patterns of language use in them. This, I believe will help fill in a gap in Linguistic Studies of the media in Zimbabwe which have generally focused on editorials and hard news stories. At the same time the study aims at creating literature on the manner in which columnists create identities and ideologies in their writing using Tafataona Mahoso s African Focus column as a typical sample. Obviously there will be other literature after this study that will also analyse opinion columns and the manner in which they create identities and highlight ideologies (or do not). By Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 12 conducting a study of this nature it is hoped that we can employ Discourse Analysis and Appraisal theory for practical purposes. Ngugi waThiongo argues that Every writer is a writer in politics and this researcher has been particularly intrigued by the manner in which columnists have taken to written discourse to engage in argumentation. As writers engage in such activity their discourse falls into the genre of media discourse but the Zimbabwean media because of the manner it has been divided into particular schisms has in the recent past used language in such a manner that Landa (2010) focused on the manner the print media has tended to employ hate speech in its reportage. This study therefore aims to extend research into Zimbabwean media discourse but from a different perspective and theoretical framework. Two notions will be given particular attention in this study and these are: identity and ideology . The two aspects have been defined in the following manner by the Merriam Webster dictionary: (a) Identity- who someone is; the name of a person, the qualities, beliefs etc that make a particular person or group different from others, the distinguishing character or personality of an individual (b) Ideology- set of ideas and beliefs about a group or political party, a systematic body of concepts especially about human life or culture The study will thus aim at interrogating how Tafataona Mahoso has created an identity (or identities) for himself through his articles as well as how he has created identities for different persons of note mentioned in his articles. The study will work on the assumption that since the column is an opinion column it also engages in agenda setting (giving media audiences issues to think about and concern themselves with). The column will thus be seen as an argumentative type of discourse. Because of this view, this researcher opines that there will be need to delve into the Argumentation Theory with an expose of the theory s salient features being attempted in the process. 1.5 Objectives of the Study Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 13 The study aims initially to provide a comprehensive account of the generic structure of an opinion column in a Zimbabwean newspaper. Here the researcher intends to employ not only Mahoso s articles in the expose but several other columns from different publications but all of which will be broadsheets and from the Southern African region. The rationale behind this delimitation being that the researcher wishes to avoid a biased outcome which may generalise opinion column style in a manner that may not be reflective of how these are structured in different geographical locations. The researcher however assumes that the style should not be different on the premise of geographical location (but will hedge against generalisations that may be falsified all the same). The second objective of this study is an attempt at exposing the manner in which identity and ideology may be communicated in an opinion column. The opinion columns by Tafataona Mahoso will be employed as sample case studies here. Opinion columns deal with current topics tackled from the perspective of the writer. Also, as texts of persuasive journalism, writers of opinion columns build up a relationship with their audience by means of explicit linguistic features (Hyland 2004). Therefore, the study of evaluation (Hunston & Thompson 2000) in this kind of texts should encompass both perspectives: the analysis of those features expressing an attitudinal dimension or writer s stance in the text and, in addition, an analysis of those features addressing readers and guiding them through discourse. 1.6 Summary This section of the study was aimed and delimiting the study and showing the real issues that this researcher wishes to grapple with. A brief view of the aspects that are important to this current study Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 14 Chapter 2 The field of Discourse Analysis, Theoretical perspectives on Genre, and Halliday s Systemic Functional Linguistics. 2.0 Introduction This chapter will explore Discourse analysis, what the field is all about as well as give insight into genre by exploring the definition of the term. At this juncture the research will attempt to show how genres have been theorized, the challenges faced in such activity and the basis of classification of texts into particular genre will also be attempted in this section. Thereafter the research will attempt a generic classification of the samples that are to be used in the current study attempting to see what characteristics make the columns by Tafataona Mahoso qualify to be classified as they are. 2.1 The Field of Discourse Analysis Having explored the preliminaries in the previous chapter, the research will hereafter proceed by exploring literature on Discourse Analysis, Opinion columns, Systemic Functional Linguistics as well as the two focus areas of identity and ideology. Different perspectives have been proffered as to what discourse analysis entails. Online resource, www.discourses.org gives us a generalised definition: a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event while Brown and Yule (1983) take a primarily linguistic approach to the analysis of discourse. They explain how humans use language to communicate and, in particular, how addressers construct linguistic messages for addressees and how addressees work on linguistic messages in order to interpret them. In their endeavour to explain and delimit the field, Brown and Yule call on insights from a number of interdisciplinary areas. Their aim, as Discourse Analysts, in their own words is: to give an account of how forms of language are used in communication . Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 15 Communication is a process in which a semiotic product or event is both articulated or produced and interpreted or used (Kress and Van Leeuwen 2001: 20). It follows from this definition that we consider the production and use of designed objects and environments as a form of communication. The term Discourse Analysis, as demonstrated by Stubbs (1983), is very ambiguous. Stubbs uses it to refer mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written discourse . Stubbs adds, Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organisation of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts . It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language use in social contexts (pragmatics), and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers. Tannen adds an interesting dimension to the definition of Discourse Analysis: Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together . One is left wondering therefore whether this definition excludes clauses and clausal phrases and deems these as not being discoursal. This researcher opines that clauses ought to be considered discoursal and be subjected to analysis as would complete sentences with the particular contexts in which these clauses are used being taken into consideration. This is however not the primary object of this study and will thus not be delved into at this juncture. Slembrouck (1998/2003) addresses the question of whether Discourse Analysis ought to be limited to written or spoken language. Discourse Analysis, Slembrouck (1998/2003) argues, does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language. In fact, the monolithic character of the categories of speech and writing has been widely challenged, Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 16 especially as the gaze of analysts turns to multi-media texts and practices on the Internet . The field extends thus to multi-modal discourses such as pictures, cartoons or colours amongst other things. James Paul Gee (1999) opines that: Discourse analysis is the study of language-in-use. Better put, it is the study of language at use in the world, not just to say things, but to do things. People use language to communicate, co-operate, help others, and build things like marriages, reputations, and institutions. They also use it to lie, advantage themselves, harm people, and destroy things like marriages, reputations, and institutions. Other Discourse Analysts define the area differently. Van Dijk (1998) shows us the broad nature of Discourse Analysis as a field of study: Because the study of discourse has become a large field in the past ten years, my discussion here must be limited to those aspects of discourse analysis that seem most relevant for the study of media discourse. Thus, I will pay little attention to those properties of discourse that can be characterized in terms of linguistic grammar in the strict sense, such as the syntax and semantics of (isolated) sentences. Rather, I will be concerned with more specific textual structures that have been neglected in linguistics. Similarly, I cannot go into the details of stylistic and rhetorical analysis of media discourse, although much work in this area still needs to be done. Finally, I will also limit my application to news discourse in the press, thereby neglecting TV, film, and radio discourse, the role of images in audiovisual forms of discourse, and other types of newspaper discourse such as advertisements and commentaries. From the above by Van Dijk we can deduce that Discourse Analysis may be limited to a study of linguistic elements such as grammar and syntax. Jurgensonn points out that the term discourse has been used indiscriminately and in so many different contexts sometimes without being defined so much that it has almost lost meaning. She however points to the fact that a general idea underlies the word and its use in many cases, underlying the word discourse is the general idea that language is structured according to different patterns that people s utterances follow when they take part in different domains of social life, familiar examples being medical Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 17 discourse and political discourse . Discourse analysis is the analysis of these patterns . Working from this view we can conclude then that Discourse analysis pertains to the study of the use of language in particular settings. This definition of Discourse is seen by Jurgensonn as common sense but not much help in clarifying what discourses are, how they function, or to analyse them. In a bid to overcome this problem, Jurgensonn suggests more developed theories and methods . . She concludes by proposing the preliminary definition of a discourse as a particular way of talking about and understanding the world (or an aspect of the world). Jurgensonn considers three different approaches to social constructionist discourse analysis Laclau and Mouffe s (1985) discourse theory, critical discourse analysis, and discursive psychology. All three approaches share the starting point that our ways of talking do not neutrally reflect our world, identities and social relations but, rather, play an active role in creating and changing them. It can thus be observed that generally Discourse Analysis regardless of the approach employed, establish that our use of language is critical in establishing for us an identity and important in conveying ideologies. This study will try to zero in on the how aspect. In summing up, we can make the following conclusions: Discourse Analysis is: Concerned with whole texts rather than sentences or clauses. Divides into: 1. Spoken Discourse Analysis: study of conversations, dialogues, spoken monologues, etc. 2. Written Discourse Analysis: study of written texts, such as essays, news, political speeches, etc. More concerned with naturally occurring data than in made up examples. A collection of techniques, rather than a single analysis A number of reasons can also be identified as to why we study Discourse Analysis. The following reasons can be readily identified: 1. As linguists, to find out how language works, to improve our understanding of an important kind of human activity 2. As educators, to find out how good texts work, so that we can focus on teaching our students these writing/speaking strategies. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 18 3. As critical analysts, to discover meanings in the text which are not obvious on the surface (e.g., analysing a politician s speech to see their preconceptions). 2.2 Locating genre for present study This study will use as a source, newspaper articles by Tafataona Mahoso (published in The Sunday Mail under the title, African Focus . This implies that the study explores media texts. These articles take the form of opinion columns. This researcher opines that the articles fit into the opinion genre of newspaper articles, a view that is easily shared amongst media scholars. With regards this type/class of newspaper article, Adeoye (not dated) says, Newspaper opinion articles are writings from individual members of the public. The articles appear under newspaper regular columns that have titles, such as opinion or viewpoint. This column is a newspaper public forum where individuals can express their thoughts on salient societal issues. The editorials and letters to the editor columns are other aspects of the newspaper public forum (Mikhailova, 2011:523). These forum pages are seen as instruments of participatory democracy, a conduit for airing one s value-laden view to the mass public (Hoffman and Slater, 2007:58). Seeing as it is that Tafataona Mahoso is a member of the public and what he expresses in the aforementioned articles is certainly his point of view as typified by the constant use of the personal pronoun, I . It therefore follows that there is sufficient reason to argue that the articles qualify for the label of opinion articles. The same author (Adeoye) carries out an interesting research which is akin my current study in the manner he addresses the functionality of language as captured in newspaper columns. He makes the following arguments and observations in his article: Some extant studies on the media discourse of newspaper public forum have focused on the content analysis of the article s ideological complexity and value frames (Hoffman and Slater, 2007; Jensen and Honneland, 2011), and on different models of argumentation used in media debates on public issues (Bander, 2008:96). Other studies Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 19 (e.g. Gogging and Long, 2009) have found that letters to the editor in daily newspapers are powerful discourses which aid productive community activism. Also, while Moore (2005) investigates elements of propaganda in public opinions in Zimbabwe, Mikhailova (2011) studies electronic letters to the editor on a riot and a bombing incident in Russia, and finds that the letters represent public opinions that favour banal nationalism over extreme nationalism (p.523). Further, using the methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Thomas (2003) explores the competing public discourse on schooling in Australia, and submits that these discourses constructed schools as being in crisis. Such a representation ideologically gives authoritative voice to a group while diminishing the authority of the other. A similar methodology is also used by Von Seth (2011). The views and thoughts expressed by Adeoye (n.d) above are telling of the amount of research into the media. There is however scant literature that analyses media discourse from an SFL perspective. As such it is the aim of this research study to fill this gap and prompt further research into the area. As seen in the foregoing review, apart from Thomas (2003) which deploys purely the methodology of CDA, many studies on writings in newspaper public opinion forums pay scanty attention to the role of textual elements in the implicit construction of social meanings. Adeoye explores public opinion on Achebe but such a research can only be of benefit to the personality in question s immediate community, no such research has been done for the Zimbabwean community. It is therefore the aim of this research to fill in this gap in the Zimbabwean community. It is the intention of this researcher to outline clearly what it is that warrants the description of Tafataona Mahoso s articles as being opinion articles yet there are so many, varied names for articles that we see within the newspapers. It therefore follows that this research will outline in a more or less prescriptive as well as descriptive manner the salient features of an opinion column. The appropriation of names / categories for articles within the newspapers implies that these articles share some similarities and hence can be labeled as being one thing or the other. For instance, some articles may be called reports whereas others may be advertorials. Within these classes you may even be able to identify other sub-classes. As we identify these classes, we are Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 20 in essence identifying genres. How are genres uncovered and categorized? This is a question that has been addressed by several scholars from different perspectives. Sabao (2013:11) has explored the theories towards genre by pointing out the views of notable scholars in the area such as Chandler (1990), Miller (1984), Barwashi and Reiff (2010), and Swales (1990) amongst others. Chandler (1990) starts off by questioning the very existence of genres asking: Are genres really 'out there' in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culture bound or transcultural?...Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? (Stam 2000:14) Chandler goes on to explore the etymology of the word genre itself highlighting that the word has French as well as Latin origins where it implies 'kind' or 'class'. The word has according to Chandler (1997/2000) found wide usage in rhetoric, literary and media theory as well as in linguistics and has frequently been used to refer to a distinctive type of text. As Sabao (2013:12) notes the criterion used for the generic classification of texts (both spoken and written) as belonging to given genres seems to continue to be clouded in ambivalence . Scholarship, Sabao (2013) advances, argues for criterion based on either communicative purpose (Swales, 1990: Chandler, 1997/2000) or purpose and audience/discourse community. Chandler (1997/2000) summates the arguments in genre studies brilliantly in the following excerpt: 'for most of its 2,000 years, genre study has been primarily nominological and typological in function. That is to say, it has taken as its principal task the division of the world of literature into types and the naming of those types - much as the botanist divides the realm of flora into varieties of plants' (Allen 1989, 44). As will be seen, however, the analogy with biological classification into genus and species misleadingly suggests a 'scientific' process. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 21 It can be observed from the argument above by Chandler (1997) that genre classification is not a scientific process and thus we may argue that the process of categorisation of text into a particular class is hard and fast and there may even be instances in which texts may even fall into more than one class. The following proposition by Fowler (1984) testifies to the notion of genre categorization being unscientific : Representations of a genre may be regarded as malting up a family whose septs and individual members are related in various ways, without necessarily having any single feature shared in common by all. (Fowler 1984;1). The notion of family resemblances alluded to by Fowler is one that is borrowed from Wittgenstein and is reflective of the unscientific nature of genre categorisation. Chandler (1997) expands his argument on genre study and classification in the following manner: Since classical times literary works have been classified as belonging to general types which were variously defined. In literature the broadest division is between poetry, prose and drama, within which there are further divisions, such as tragedy and comedy within the category of drama. Shakespeare referred satirically to classifications such as 'tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical- pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comical historical- pastoral...' (Hamlet II ii). In The Anatomy of Criticism the formalist literary theorist Northrop Frye (1957) presented certain universal genres and modes as the key to organizing the entire literary corpus. The categorisations so far witnessed relate to literary studies. Chandler (1997) then shifts focus to zero in on the media but the following discussion is however insufficient for the present study. In discussing media genres, Chandler (1997/2000) proffers the following arguments: Contemporary media genres tend to relate more to specific forms than to the universals of tragedy and comedy. Nowadays, films are routinely classified (e.g. in television listings magazines) as 'thrillers', 'westerns' and so on - genres with which every adult in modern society is familiar. So too with television genres such as 'game shows' and 'sitcoms'. While we have names for countless genres in many media, some theorists have argued Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 22 that there are also many genres (and sub-genres) for which we have no names (Fowler 1989, 216; Wales 1989, 206). Chandler s exposition here does not extend to the print media and is focused on the electronic media hence the previous observation that the argument does not suffice for this current study since this research intends to work with texts in the print media. We, however can learn a number of issues from the exposition above. Key to these lessons is the fact that genres relate to form. Another issue is the idea of routine classification. The articles that this researcher uses for the current study are undoubtedly classified as they are by convention. Miller (1984) posits that there are no undisputed 'maps' of the system of genres within any medium (though literature may perhaps lay some claim to a loose consensus) . The claim to a loose consensus in the field of literature can also be extended to the print media where we find classifications that appear universal across different media houses as well as geographical locations as will be demonstrated from a sample of articles shortly in my discussion of the opinion column and its characteristic features in the discussion to follow. However, Chandler (1997) argues further that, there is often considerable theoretical disagreement about the definition of specific genres. 'A genre is ultimately an abstract conception rather than something that exists empirically in the world,' notes Jane Feuer (1992, 144). One theorist's genre may be another's sub-genre or even super-genre (and indeed what is technique, style, mode, formula or thematic grouping to one may be treated as a genre by another). Themes, at least, seem inadequate as a basis for defining genres since, as David Bordwell notes, 'any theme may appear in any genre' (Bordwell 1989, 147). Thus the argument continues as to how we can formulate genres. Despite these however, we can still note a number of thematic similarities or textual features which relate one text to another and hence they can be considered a family/class which argument was captured by Wittgenstein in his famous family resemblance analogy. Miller (1984) suggests that 'the number of genres in any society... depends on the complexity and diversity of society' (Miller 1984, in Freedman & Medway 1994a, 36).The classification and Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 23 hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not a neutral and 'objective' procedure. This argument suggests that some genres may even be formulated by people on the basis of ulterior motives. As a means of concluding this debate on genre and genre categorisation I will borrow the views of Sabao (2014). He argues that the concept of a theory of genre continues to be elusive and that the criterion used for the classification of texts as belonging to given genres continues to be clouded in ambivalence . That position taken, it can still be seen that specific genres tend to be easy to recognize intuitively but difficult (if not impossible) to define (Chandler 2000). Bhatia (1994) arguing from an SFL perspective says genre is a recognizable communicative event that regularly occurs . Genres in Bhatia s views are highly structured and conventionalized constructs which constraint the contribution, the shape people will take and the lexicogrammatical resources . He therefore puts emphasis on repetitiveness and structural uniqueness (particularly in terms of linguistic resources). This study will hereafter explore the structural uniqueness of opinion columns and the manner in which we witness the notion of repetitiveness in this genre. Another important aspect with regards genre has been noted by Ansary and Babaii (2004) as being how the features of a text depend on the social context of their creation and use. 2.3 Genre from an SFL Perspective According to Sabao (2013:22) within SFL genre is seen as a meaning which results from language which does a particular job in a particular contextual configuration . This definition is seen as drawing a similarity between genre and register but genre is distinct because it is set up above the level of analyzing the metafunctions of language. Register is thus concerned with the manner in which the variables of field, tenor and mode are phased together in a text. SFL however employs genre as part of a project to relate language use to its social context, in particular, the context of culture (Mey 2009 quoted in Sabao, 2013). Martin defines genre as a staged, goal oriented, and purposeful social activity that people engage in as members of their culture . The Opinion Column is thus classed as it is if it is in line with the goals and purposes expected of it by people who are part of the same culture. In other Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 24 words it is only an Opinion writer who can establish if an article qualifies to be called an opinion. The characteristics of an Opinion column are discussed in the next section. The SFL genre analyst according to Mey (2009 in Sabao (2013)) gathers texts of a particular genre, examines their particular structures breaking each example into purpose driven stages. These stages have different purposes and are thus realized differently linguistically. Barwashi and Reiff (2010) believe that genres are forms of cultural knowledge that conceptually frame and mediate how we understand and typically act within various situations . In making inferences from postulations by Barwashi and Reiff (2010), Sabao (2013) concludes that we can discern that within SFL s conceptualization of genre, language structure is integrally related to social function and context . At this particular juncture the theoretical position from which this study will work has merely been mentioned in passing and will be discussed fully in Chapter 3 of this study. The study however will however owing to what has been uncovered in this particular section, gather texts from the genre known as Opinion columns (in the form of Mahoso s African Focus column articles from The Sunday Mail and The Patriot), examine their particular structures, break examples into purpose driven stages as well as carry out an Appraisal of the texts using the Appraisal framework as a means to uncovering the Affect within the text. 2.3 Generic characteristics of Opinion Columns 2.3.1 Newspaper genre- a general overview This study looks at a sub-genre of the mass media, namely opinion columns. The notion of genre as has already been shown is problematic and questions have been posed as to whether we can even talk about anything that we can regard as genre. The questions posed by Chandler with regards genre are critical for scholarship into discourse as demonstrated in the previous discussion. The following passage from Chandler (1997/2000) makes critical observations on approaches to genre and theories towards genre. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 25 In a article on genre studies, Hyland (2002) distinguishes between three main approaches. In the first, the New Rhetoric group, the emphasis is on the ethnographic investigation of contexts to determine the motivated, functional relationship between text type and rhetorical situation (Coe, 2002: 195) (Hyland, 2002: 114). Paltridge (1994), for example, states that the genre analyst needs to move away from the physical aspects of language and how they reflect reality to how the text, as a whole, is conditioned by external considerations (1994: 296). The second approach to genre studies is based on Halliday s Systemic Functional Linguistics (1994) and underlines the importance of social purposes of genres and of describing the schematic (rhetorical) structures that have evolved to serve these purposes (Hyland, 2002: 115). Finally the third approach, developed in the field of English for Special Purposes, considers genre as a class of structured communicative events employed by specific communities whose members share broad communicative purposes (Swales, 1990) (Hyland, 2002: 115). Hyland observes that these approaches, despite their differences, tend to evolve towards a study of genre that involves not only schematic structures but also register, style, lexis and other rhetorical features. In sum, it is to be noted that, in all of these studies, genre is first defined in terms of the function/purpose of the text type. An important consequence of this is that the investigation of text genre must pay close attention to the text content and the socio-political context(s) in which it is produced and meant to be received. In other words, it cannot be automatically assumed that, for example, the genre of editorials in Newspaper A will be the same as the genre of editorials in Newspaper B, wherever A and B are published, or even that the genre of editorials in Newspaper A is unique whatever the issue to which they pertain It therefore follows from the observations above that it appears difficult to arrive at a generalization(s) with regards the genre of opinion columns as indicated in the discussion above. An attempt will be made however to analyse the generic characteristics of the newspaper opinion columns authored by Tafataona Mahoso. An attempt will also be made to compare Tafataona Mahoso s opinion articles with those of other opinion columnists. It may be possible, this researcher opines, to establish some generic structure that is uniform among opinion columns that are published under different news houses. In a bid to do this the Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 26 researcher will pick out a sample of opinion columns from different publications in Zimbabwe and compare these. If there are any generic structures that are similar, a case will be made for a generic structure for opinion columns (in this case the argument will be limited to the context in which the study is situated). By pursuing this research path, it is hoped that the researcher will contribute to genre studies. Sabao (2013) quoting Bhatia (1994) observes that there are varied genres in news (including among others- headlines, news reports, editorials, feature articles, comments, letters to the editor, book reviews, reviews, weather reports, and fashion and health columns.). Each of the genres above is seen as serving a different communicative purpose and represents as a result a different and distinct form of language. The organisation of thoughts textually is also unique and follows a particular predictable pattern expectedly. This research therefore seeks to uncover these. Media scholar, Jurgen Habermas (1991) observation that the mass media affords people a public sphere through which people from different walks of life can voice their concerns is of importance to this current study. This (use of the media as a public sphere), they can do through such platforms as letters to the editor, interviews and articles in which different positions are presented (Elsevier 2008). Through editorials, news media represent themselves by presenting their own positions on issues that they deem of importance. With opinion columns individuals are allowed space to present their own views. In some cases the newspaper editors may deliberately allow certain individuals more voice than others making the notion of Habermatian space being democratic altogether questionable. This study however does not intend to delve on this aspect in detail. This study has chosen to study the works of a professional media actor, Tafataona Mahoso who currently chairs the Zimbabwe Media Commission and is also a lecturer of media studies at the Harare Polytechnic. It therefore follows that the views presented in his articles are not mere positions by an ordinary person and in terms of style, his articles may even display a particular patterned style which is reflective of the professional media person that Tafataona Mahoso is. Because of the role that Mahoso plays as an educator at one of Zimbabwe s premier journalism schools (the media and Communications School at Harare Polytechnic) his influence in the opinion genre cannot be ignored. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 27 In an article titled The Language of News Media, Bell (not dated) highlights that everything other than advertising is called editorial. We may thus term this the super genre in the print media and all else that comes afterwards as illustrated in the following becomes a sub genre of print media. Editorial Written copy Service Information visual Opinion news Hard news Feature articles Figure 1 (Source: Allen Bell, not dated) headlines Special topic news What Bell calls service information are lists rather than continuous copy . An example of such would be log standings in soccer which show which team is on which position as well as statistical information on the number of games that the team has played along with other information such as the number of losses recorded, goals scored, goals conceded etc as well statistical information on such elements as the weather. In the opinion section are pieces such as editorials or leaders , a statement of the newspaper s own views on an issue which s usually on an inside page. There are in existence a number of genres in news such as those identified by Bhatia (1994) which have been summated in diagrammatic form by Bell above. Bhatia notes some of the genres as including headlines, news reports, editorials, feature articles, comments, and letters to the editor, book reviews, reviews, and weather reports. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 28 2.3.2 Particular generic tenets of columns This study will at this point briefly explore the tenets that are apparent in articles frequently categorized as opinion columns and thus, hopefully contribute to genre study within the media, particularly the print media. The first aspect that needs to be appreciated as we attempt a discussion of the generic nature of opinion columns is the notion of where these articles are found. Generally when we talk of opinion columns we relate these to newspapers though there are cases of online publications now and these also carry within them opinion articles. It however, should be noted that this current study will employ the print version of the opinion article. Generally speaking opinion columns are found on the same page as the page carrying the Editorial Column or a few pages after this page. In the case of the Tafataona Mahoso articles running under the column name African Focus , the articles are found on page two (2) of an insert of the main paper, The Sunday Mail and this insert is titled The Sunday Mail In Depth . The page as a result is called D2 for purposes of creating a difference from the main paper and other inserts. The In-Depth insert is the one that carries most of the feature and opinion articles in The Sunday Mail. We may therefore note a deliberate division of the paper (The Sunday Mail) into sections on the basis of the generic characteristics of the articles. Hard News is in the main paper, the In-Depth insert carries human interest articles that are written from the subjective view of the contributors. The Sunday Mail Entertainment (another insert in The Sunday Mail) contains stories on leisure and entertainment while The Sunday Mail Business (also an Insert in The Sunday Mail) has a particular thrust on addressing business news stories. In The Patriot the articles by Mahoso are normally located next to the Editorial page. McCabe and Heilman (2007) point out that there are evident textual differences between a hard news story and an editorial and this study extends the argument further to opine that there are textual differences between a hard news story and an opinion column which can also be demonstrated in the interpersonal nature of the opinion column. As the opinion column engages the audience identities are created and ideologies expressed. The opinion column will evidently Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 29 not attempt to disguise authorial stance while there is every effort to hide authorial stances 2. The textual differences between opinions and hard news stories may be located in the theme3 The experiential content of opinion columns is in many ways similar to that of news reports as well as editorials. We therefore can note that opinion columns contain experiential content and hence in terms of linguistic features we expect that these articles will feature numerous verbal phrases and terms that capture action. Opinion columns deal with current topics tackled from the perspective of the writer. Also, as texts of persuasive journalism, writers of opinion columns build up a relationship with their audience by means of explicit linguistic features (Hyland 2004). The study of opinion texts should encompass two perspectives: the analysis of those features expressing an attitudinal dimension or writer s stance in the text and, in addition, an analysis of those features addressing readers and guiding them through discourse. A characteristic feature of opinion columns observed by this researcher is the use of enthymemes as well as syllogisms which advance arguments for a logical position that the reader is expected to sympathise with or at least see as having some merit within it. This position is arrived upon on the premise that opinion columns are argumentative pieces. The writers usually follow through their arguments in a logical manner in which there is a build up of information such that the audience. One anonymous resource that this researcher came across in the course of this research listed the characteristics of the Opinion column in the following manner: Subjective- expresses writer s opinion Sabao (2013), and Gales (2007) have researched the notion of authorial stance in hard news reporting ands subsequently suggested ways of uncovering authorial stance using the appraisal theory. Both theses can be obtained online in pdf format. 3 Halliday (1994:67) defines theme as providing the environment for the remainder of the message, the Rheme while Davies (1997) agrees saying the theme initiates the semantic journey and should a different starting point be chosen for the journey then a different journey results. Analysis of the theme and rheme helps us understand the writer s underlying concerns. The example below shows how themes may change as well as the possible applications: Participant The Palestinian Authority is planning to hold elections in just three months. ( Summertime in Gaza ) Circumstance In a conversation lasting more than an hour, Mr. Sharon argued that European nations negotiating with Iran were softening their position (Sanger) Process and may be willing to allow it to hold on to technology to enrich uranium 2 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 30 Has a point Written with a certain voice that accurately reflects the author Voice can be conveyed creatively through humour, seriousness, sarcasm, anger, sadness Attempts to tell the story behind the news; the side we normally do not see Can break rules of grammar, punctuation to achieve desired effect Mixes personal and universal: use a story (often personal) to illustrate a relevant point Can include a variety of formats:       Lists Poems Stories Quotes Interviews Dramas Has a point The same anonymous author goes on to explore types of columns in terms of their content and style coming up with at least four types of columns which are listed as News, Sports, Features. The observations that Anonymous makes are important for this study in the manner they capture the most important generic facets of the opinion column from observation and these are the manner in which they are indeed subjective expressing the viewpoint of the author and attempting to sway the reader into accepting the same. The notion of the voice captured by Anonymous is what this study has chosen to focus on as in entails the Appraisal resources that highlight the interpersonal metafunctions in opinion columns from which we can then note identities as well as ideologies. 2.3.3 Comparison of Op-Eds and Hard News Genre This short section will compare the Opinion column and the Hard news genre particularly in terms of their textuality. The section will summate findings by other scholars as well as make deductions on tenets that may be seen as distinguishing the two genres from one another. It is Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 31 hoped that by such comparison, it will be possible to establish further generic tenets of the Opinion besides the ones identified up to this point. Bakhtinian (1981) studies have since established that texts tend to be heteroglossic i.e. texts reflect a plenitude of speech and thus there is a multiplicity of voices surrounding a text . Sabao (2013:62) captures how it has been argued of media studies that the notion of the subject as an author is seen as less significant compared to literary studies. This researcher opines that such a view is debatable. This position is arrived at from a number of findings which will be detailed below. Firstly, the research by Sabao (2013) on reporter voices in hard news (focusing particularly on the Zimbabwean context) noted that although the hard news report ought to be more objective than subjective, author subjectivities are still present in hard news report. Arguing from this stand-point, this researcher opines that it is critical that studies in media studies focus on the author as a subject as objectivity is simply an ideal that is espoused in journalism ethics but simply remains that and is not really found in such publications. Secondly the Opinion column (which is the object of study in this research) is one that is authored from the perspective of the author and carries overt judgements captured in some cases by the use of the pronoun, I in some proclamations by such authors. Statements in which the author engages in what Gales (2010) calls stance-taking are in cases substantiated by acknowledgements and endorsements from other authors seen as authoritative in such areas. Seeing that the Opinion column features overt as well as implicit judgement, it is necessary to look at the author as a subject of study in the news genre. The following diagram adapted from White (2001) contrasts the Objective and the Subjective Objectivity Subjectivity Language resources used to signal factuality , absence of overt commitment to truth value of statement, absence of writer/Speaker Language resources used to signal interpretation, certainty, doubt, presence of author/speaker Certainty assumed (Un-) certainty made explicit Figure 2 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 32 Figure 2 above may be seen as summating the differences between the Opinion column and the Hard news genre though there is a region of overlap in-between which implies that there are certain textual similarities that exist between the two genres. The Opinion and Editorial columns are represented by the circle on the left while the hard news genre is generally characterized by what is captured on the circle to the left. Besides the differences in terms of objectivity and subjectivity, this researcher also argues that in terms of style the Opinion column will feature a lot of Judgement which aspect will be uncovered using the Appraisal framework in this study. As a means towards validating their judgements, Opinion authors tend to use attribution a lot. They may simply use acknowledgement or may use endorsement where an author may express themselves in the following ways which are almost formulaic:   X also asserts/agrees/believes This view is also captured/ held/carried The hard news writer however on the premises that they ought to be divorced from the story and not take any position will use terms which attempt to hide authorial stances and thus hedge by using neutral language. In the case of stories analysed by Sabao following the death of Solomon Mujuru, the reporters hedged by talking of allegations . All this shows us that language is not as neutral as we would want it to be or believe it to be. Language use is thus systemic and context dependant. It remains to be seen however whether this view holds true within the opinion genre. 2.4 Exploration of identity and ideology Editorials and op-ed articles in the press are generally expected to express opinions. (Op-ed articles are opinion pieces published on the page opposite the editorials.) Depending on the type and the stance of the newspaper, these opinions may vary considerably in their ideological presuppositions. This rather common formulation seems to imply that the ideologies of journalists somehow influence their opinions, which in turn influence the discourse structures of the opinion articles van Dijk (1998). 2.4.1 Identity Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 33 There are numerous definitions which have been proffered as to what each of the two terms above mean. This study will at this juncture seek to contextualize and explore the two terms so that when we proceed to uncovering how these two aspects are seen in the opinion columns chosen for study a firm understanding would have been established. A sociological approach to the issue of self and identity as noted by Burke and Stets (2009) establishes that there is a reciprocal relationship between self and society. Individuals help shape society by contributing to it and helping create groups, organizations, networks and institutions. Society, in turn contributes to individual identities through shared language and meanings. The self emerges in and is reflective of society and as a result it is important for us to understand society before attempting to understand parts of the self (identity) (Stryker, 1980). I will borrow heavily from James Paul Gee (November 2000) in further trying to define this concept whose meaning tends to boarder on the vague owing to widespread use. In an article titled Identity as an Analytic Lens for Research in Education , Gee (2000) argues that the term "identity" has taken on a great many different meanings in literature . Despite such he notes that When any human being acts and interacts in a given context, others recognize that person as acting and interacting as a certain "kind of person" or even as several different "kinds" at once . These different kinds may be labeled radical feminist, homeless person, overly macho male, "yuppie", street gang member, community activist, academic, kindergarten teacher, "at risk" student, and so on and so forth . These then become the person s identity. The American Heritage Dictionary (2009) offers us the following definitions of identity:  The collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which a thing is definitively  The set of behavioural or personal characteristics by which an individual is recognizable  The quality or condition of being the same as something else  recognizable or known as a member of a group The distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity; individuality In terms of etymology the term identity is said to have French origins, from identite which in turn is from the Latin idem meaning the same . Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 34 The Collins dictionary (1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003) offers a somewhat interesting definition pointing out that the term refers to the individual characteristics by which a person or thing is recognized Proceeding from the above a person might be recognized as being certain kind of, through countless possibilities. The "kind of person" one is recognized as "being", at a given time and place, can change from moment to moment in the interaction, can change from context to context, and, of course, can be ambiguous or unstable. It therefore follows that the study might cover a multiplicity of identities in one author as this observation makes possible such a situation. In this sense of the term, all people have multiple identities connected not to their "internal states", but to their performances in society. This is not to deny that each of us has what we might call a "core identity" that holds more uniformly, for oneself and others, across contexts. Core identity is not the subject of this paper, though I will take a stab at defining what this might mean below (in Section 2). There are, of course, other terms in circulation for what I am calling "identity" (e.g., the term "subjectivity") and "core identity" (e.g., some people reserve the term "identity" for "core identity"). I don't think it is important what terms we use. Rather, what is important for me here is to show how the notion of identity, in the sense I have defined it, can be used as an analytic tool for studying important issues of theory and practice in education. Gee (2008) shows that identities are built around four perspectives and how identity can be tied to the workings of historical, institutional, and socio-cultural forces. It therefore follow from the above that this paper will as a way for mapping a working definition of identity argue that this relates to who a person is regarded as and such positions are socioculturally, historically, politically or institutionally founded. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 35 2.4.2 Ideology The term ideology4 is related to the French word ideologue . This word has in the present become synonymous with dogmatist or doctrinarian and has just fallen short of zealot according to The New York Times. The New York Times Online says the term originally meant a study of ideas and is today used to mean doctrine . Seeing how the word is related to the word ideologue in terms of etymology, the study hereafter traces the origins of the word as well as the meanings associated with it. Mollenkamp (2004:2) tackles the question of ideology from the notion of the ideologues. The ideologues were a group of Parisians intellectuals who used the term ideology to denote a science of ideas . These ideologues had great significance and influence in France in terms of politics, linguistics, biology, psychiatry and sociology. The philosopher, Descartes in 1619 was inspired to work on a treatise which was seen as the first attempt to codify laws of thought. The ideologues developed ideology as a science of ideas that was based on the analysis of how perception and physiognomy relate to language and ideas. Van Dijk (1998) argues that at one level of analysis, opinions and ideologies involve beliefs or mental representations. The ideologies and opinions of newspapers, he argues, are usually not personal, but social, institutional or political. This is an account that is made in terms of social and societal structures. Ideologies are very complex social phenomena, which require independent conceptual analysis and empirical description at various theoretical levels. Ideologies are thus socially shared and are used by groups. What people do as social groups or as members of social groups should reflect how they think. Van Dijk (1998) proposes that s ideologies are the axiomatic basis of the mental representations shared by members of a social group i.e they represent the basic principles that govern social judgment-what group members 4 Ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence (Althusser 1971: 153) there is no ideology except by the subject and for the subject (Althusser 1971: 160) Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes towards an Investigation) Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 36 think is wrong or right, true or false. Many ideologies are polarized and they are seen as dividing society into us and them . Ideologies and ideologically based attitudes are not consistent. They constitute social identity and define the interests of a group. Van Dijk (1998) sees ideologies as the basic frameworks for organizing the social cognitions shared by members of social groups. He argues that these ideologies are both social and cognitive. People who subscribe to groups may share evaluative beliefs which are opinions organized into social attitudes. Feminists may for instance share attitudes about abortion, affirmative action, or forms of discrimination by men amongst other things. The ideologies are acquired by members of the group or culture through socialisation and other forms of what van Dijk (ibid) calls social information processing . Ideologies are systems of principles that organize social cognitions and ideological groups select relevant social values that are of value to them, for instance feminists may have values such as independence, autonomy and equality. It therefore follows that this study will seek to establish the values that are in the opinion columns chosen and show how these values are linked to the ideologies of the writers. McGregor (2003) quoted in Landa (2012:59) argues that discourse helps shape and constrain our identities, relationships, and systems of knowledge and beliefs and that Our identities and the nature of our social relationships and or knowledge and belief systems are shaped and constrained by the language and words espoused by us and by others (2003;3-4) Landa (p53) further argues that what speakers say and how they say it, in a particular context and situation is particularly determined by their social status in relation to the people they are saying it to, thus power and influence are exercised in every encounter, regardless of the base of power This proposition by Landa can be seen as critical for this study in the manner that the research focuses on the interpersonal metafunction within communication. The notions of identity and ideology relate to this particular metafunctions in the manner they relate to the relationship that the writer of the opinion column has with his audience (perceived or real). Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 37 Chapter 3 Theoretical Framework 3.1 Introduction The study aims to be systematic in approach and aims to use a Systemic functional Linguistics (SFL) Approach. The research will particularly employ the Appraisal framework as the basis of study. SFL (as defined briefly by Chapel (1998) quoted in Sabao (2013)) is a linguistic theory of Discourse Analysis (D.A) that takes into account the contextual dimensions of language. Seeing as it is that the opinion column is an argumentative type of discourse, this research intends to do a Pragma-Dialectical analysis of selected articles. Seeing also that linguistics is a scientific approach to language this research will try to be as scientific as possible in approach and be qualitative in approach. The qualitative approach where findings are explicated will be a major feature of this research. Where a need for an eclectic approach is seen as relevant the researcher intends to adopt such approach. The study will hereafter delve into an exploration of the SFL theory in detail and particular focus will be on the resources for Appraisal as captured by the leading voices in the SFL perspective as well as those scholars who have employed the theory and its elements in their studies. 3.2 The SFL Perspective and Appraisal This study thus aims at analysing how opinion writers (in this particular case, Tafataona Mahoso) use language but in order to do so there is a need for us to locate a particular theoretical perspective from which we shall work (in this case the researcher has chosen the Systemic Functional Linguistics perspective). The reasons behind this particular choice will only be apparent from an exploration of what Systemic Functional Linguistics (hereafter simply called SFL) and the Appraisal framework are all about as well as how they differ from other theoretical approaches within Linguistics. The SFL approach was developed initially by Michael Halliday who borrowed the notion of language as a system from his teacher, J. R Firth . Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 38 3.2.1 Key Claims of SFL According to Williams (2008:62) the key claim in SFL is that the (language) system itself is functionally organized to address the highly complex social need to make and exchange meaning. That is, in this perspective, the linguistic system realizes culture because it is a social semiotic modality that functions in and through social processes to enable socially constituted subjects to exchange meanings. One of the main assumptions of SFL is that language serves three main purposes: the experiential (or ideational), through which language users express their view of the world; the interpersonal, through which language users establish and maintain social contact; and the textual, which allows for the first two to be brought together and organized in a way that is communicatively effective. For this exchange of meaning to occur and the three main functions of language (listed above as ideational, textual and interpersonal) to be fulfilled, there is need for topics and actions which language expresses and Halliday has termed this the field while tenor denotes the language users, their relationship and their purposes and the third aspect in the theory, mode denotes the channel through which the interlocution takes place (speaking or writing or a combination of the two). The three purposes of language have been discussed in detail by Jakaza (2013) and the study will be referred to later on in this present study. Sabao (2013:48) further simplifies the three notions of field, tenor and mode in the following manner: field, refers to the setting and purpose. Tenor pertains to the participants roles and relationships and the key or tone of the situation. The third component, mode, refers to the symbolic or rhetorical means by which the situation is realised, and the genre to which it is most appropriately related (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004)-(italics mine) Given an adequate specification of the situation in terms of field, tenor and mode, we ought to be able to make certain predictions about the linguistic properties of the text that is associated with it: that is, about the register, the configurations of semantic options that typically feature in this environment, and hence also about the grammar and vocabulary, which are the realizations of the semantic options. Halliday (1975: 131) The fact that we ought to be positioned to make predications on linguistic properties of text in given contexts brings into focus the notion of genre and the critical role that it plays in this Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 39 current study. The study will thus discuss Genre next and the concerns thereof but will explore SFL further in the meantime so that the whole notion can become clearer. Speaking of the three metafunctions of language, i.e. textual, interpersonal and ideational Isidora Wattles, Biljana Radi -Bojani (2007) say: The first one refers to the type/token ratio, vocabulary use and register, the second one relies on concepts like exchange structure, involvement and detachment, personal reference and use of pronouns and discourse markers, whereas the third one describes propositional content and modality SFL, according to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) allows the analyst to shed light on just how linguistic choices interact with the social context to imbue texts with the meanings that are expressed. Online resource, www.grammatics.com echoes previous observations saying SFL considers language as a social semiotic system . This definition is reminiscent of the work of van Leeuwen (2005) who argues that different aspects of modern society combine to make meaning. Semioticians do three things: 1. Collect, document and systematically catalogue semiotic resources- including their history 2. Investigate how these resources are used in specific historical, cultural and institutional contexts, and how people talk about them in these contexts- plan them, teach them, justify them, critique them, etc 3. Contribute to the discovery and development of new semiotic resources and new uses of existing semiotic resources. SFL thus uses the method above and acknowledges that language has a social context within which it is located and when we try to make sense of any piece of text, SFL considers the social context in which the text obtains initially. Online resource, grammatics.com further asserts that the Hallidean systemic functional theory adopts the paradigmatic axis as its point of departure. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 40 The term systemic accordingly foregrounds Saussure's "paradigmatic axis" in understanding how language works . For Halliday, a central theoretical principle is then that any act of communication involves choices. Language is a system, and the choices available in any language variety are mapped using the representation tool of the "system network". The theory has its origins in the main intellectual tradition of European linguistics developed following the work of Saussure. It, like other such theories from the 20 th century (eg the Prague School, French Functionalism) is functional and semantic rather than formal and syntactic in orientation. It takes the text rather than the sentence as the object of study. The scope of SFL is on usage rather than grammaticality. As mentioned already the theory draws from the work of J. R Firth and his colleagues from London. It also draws on American anthropological linguistics as well as modern and traditional linguistics developed in China. The term system has been defined by Firth (1957) as the paradigmatic relations contrasted with syntagmatic relations . theoretical representation of SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language but emphasis is placed on the function of language (what does language do, and how does language do what it does) in preference to other perspectives that focus on the structural organisation of language. Systemic functional linguistics is also said to be "functional" because it considers language to having evolved under the pressure of the particular functions that the language system has to serve. Functions here imply uses. Language has a number of uses. Jakaza (2013) identifies and explores three metafunctions that language has in his doctoral thesis. These three are the ones already identified as being: ideational, textual and interpersonal. The exploration of the metafunctions will be delved into later in this study. The term metafunction it must be noted is particular to systemic functional linguistics. The organisation of the functional framework around systems, i.e., choices, is a significant difference from other "functional" approaches, such as, for example, Dijk's functional grammar (SFG, or as now often termed, functional discourse grammar) and lexical functional grammar. Thus, it is important to Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 41 use the full designation systemic functional linguistics rather than just functional grammar or functional linguistics in this present study. For purposes of brevity this study will leave the argument at that and not delve into the differences between SFL and SFG or Lexical Functional Grammar. Because these functions are considered to come into being simultaneously mean about the world without having either a real or virtual audience viz., one cannot language must also be able to bring these meanings together: this is the role of structural organisation, be that grammatical, semantic or contextual. Figure 3 (Adapted from Martin 2014:7) Martin (2014) observes that work on SFL has concerned itself mainly with what has been generally called clause semantics which implies that the concern has generally been on the meanings within clauses and not whole texts as is the case with discourse analysis. The diagram above illustrates this situation within SFL scholarship where concern has been with the clause. In other words according to Martin our attention as linguists has been on what is on the surface (the form and not the substance). Language, however, is not a simple system of signs; the bonding of signifié with significant is far more complex than that. Martin sees, language, rather as a stratified system of signs, with a content plane and an expression plane. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 42 Halliday (the scholar behind SFL), it has been argued by Martin, was influenced by Hjelmslev s reasoning and this influence is demonstrated in Halliday s early modeling of the linguistic system is illustrated in Figure 2 below formlessness, and extra-textual features with substance divided into phonic and graphic Figure 4 (Levels of language from Halliday 1961/2002:39 in Martin 2014:7) Martin explains with regards Figure 2: As presaged in Figure 2, SFL s orientation to stratification moves beyond Hjelmslev s concept of double articulation (to use Martinet s 1949 terms) to incorporate further levels of analysis. The term context in Figure 2 reflects Firth s approach to meaning as function in context (e.g. Firth 1957a) positioned there as a third plane (a third stratum in SFL terms). In Halliday s later work the term semantics is adopted for this level, resulting in a tri-stratal model with a stratified content plane ( triple articulation if you will) regularly imaged with co-tangential circles as in Figure 5 below (e.g. Matthiessen & Halliday 2009: 87). This evolving conception of language as a tri-stratal system contrasted for me in interesting respects with the stratificational approach developed by Gleason and his students (Cromack 1968, Gleason 1968, Gutwinski 1976, Stennes 1969, Taber 1966). For them the third stratum was conceived as discourse, reflecting their concern with bible translation and the need to describe text relations beyond the sentence (Martin 2014:7) Jakaza (2013) documents how SFL assigns three broad types of social function to language (metafunctions), namely the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. He expands quoting Martin and White (2005:7) that the ideational metafunction is concerned with the way in which Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 43 language is used to construe experiential meaning, that is ...what s going on, who s doing what to whom, where, when, why and how, and the logical relation of one going on to another . Speaking of the three metafunctions of language, i.e. textual, interpersonal and ideational Isidora Wattles, Biljana Radi -Bojani (2007) say: The first one refers to the type/token ratio, vocabulary use and register, the second one relies on concepts like exchange structure, involvement and detachment, personal reference and use of pronouns and discourse markers, whereas the third one describes propositional content and modality The textual metafunctions, as Jakaza (2013) explores further, deals with the way that information is packed and distributed in text, making use of language to relate to what is said or written in the real world. The Interpersonal metafunction is seen as being realised through the resources that construe social reality- it refers to the way that social relationships are enacted in language. Thus, Jakaza expounds, it allows members of a speech community to participate in communicative acts with other people taking on roles, expressing and understanding feelings, attitude and judgments. There have been several empirical researches employing the SFL perspective and Kress notes that SFL research has proven particularly different from other ethnographic research because they have focused primarily on written discourses. In the context of this present study this difference, it is anticipated, will not count for much as the sample columns chosen for this study are not multi-modal to a larger extent. SFL also differs from ethnographies of communication in that, although there has been some consideration of oral communicative activities, as shown in the study by Young and Miller, up until recently, much of the analytic attention has been on written genres. With the increasing recognition of the multimodal nature of literacy, and the fact that language alone cannot give us access to the meaning of the multimodally constituted message (Kress, 2003: 35), contemporary SFL research has extended its analytic focus to include a range of modes such as, for example, images, gestures, and animated movements in addition to the more traditional oral and written modes. SFL thus allows us to study such communication modes as television programmes, movies, moving cartoons, print cartoons and other multimodal communications. Halliday makes Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 44 apparent in empirically interesting and compelling ways the socially constituted nature of language. A summary of the SFL perspective by White (2014) highlights that; the social context of any communicative exchange is substantially constituted by that communication. The whole premise of SFL is appears is the issue of meaning making which is affected by the social situation of the communication. O Donnell (2011) introduces SFL as being an approach to language developed by Halliday in the 1960s in the United Kingdom and later in Australia. O Donnell highlights that as an approach SFL is more related to sociology whereas many linguistic theories see language as being a mental process. This particular view emanates from the manner in which SFL sees language as socially contextualized and aimed at achieving a particular social goal. The concern in SFL is not with the mental processes that go into the production of language but it looks at the discourses we produce and the contexts of the production of these texts. The concern therefore is on the function of language than on structure. O Donnell (ibid) goes on to explain the terms systemic and functional by first addressing the two types of relations between texts: Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic. These two relationships have often been termed chain and choice . The first relates to how elements within a text relate to one another for example how we place an identifier before a noun and a verb follows the noun as in the following sentence: The man cried the second relationship relates to choices ie we can replace the terms in the sentence used as an example by putting alternate terms in their place. For instance where we have man we can put boy and the action captured by the verb, cried may be changed with another verb like wailed . These choices have an impact on the overall communication and such is the focus of this study: How do linguistic choices affect meaning? Grammars like Chomsky s focus on the syntagmatic relations and they formulate rules such as: S NP VP NP - det noun NP NP det adj noun pronoun Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 45 VP VP v_intrans v_trans NP The Chomskyan rules above tell of how the sentence is constituted and the elements that go into the makeup of the different elements within the sentence. The system of choices is hidden in all of this. SFL s interest is on the choices that people make and how these choices are made. For instance with regards voice, the speaker or writer has an option between using a passive or an active voice. The systemic approach thus allows in O Donnell s (2011) words to focus on meaningful choices in language without thinking of the particular structure that realizes it. The functional orientation of SFL is on several levels but generally this shows how the theory looks at what language does more than how it does it. Language for instance gives information, demands information, demands action or offers action among other things. 3.2.2 The history of SFL SFL was largely developed by Halliday and his followers but they built their work on that of others such as Firth and Malinowski. Malinowski, according to O Donnell (2011:6) argued that in order to understand an utterance it was vital to understand the context of situation . Malinowski (1935:22) postulated that except in exceptional circumstances a single word in a sentence or a single sentence is meaningless. Words receive, he argues, their significance their significance only through the context of other words and so a sentence usually appears in the context of other sentences. The sentence has meaning only as part of a larger significant whole . Malinowski thus proposed a widening of the concept of context within linguistics to embrace not only spoken words but facial expression, gesture, bodily activities, the whole group of persons present the environment and Another of Malinowski s contributions was the concept that the meaning of words lies in their ability to invoke situations in which they have been used previously. Malinowski (1935:46) argued that in a narrative words are used with might be called a borrowed or indirect meaning. Another individual who is important in SFL is J R Firth who believed in the centrality of context of situation. He also applied this throughout his linguistic model. At a time when Bloomfield and other colleagues taught that the study of meaning was not important to linguistics, he strongly advocated for such study. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 46 Halliday was a student of Firth s while working towards attaining his doctorate and he implemented the ideas of Firth in coming up with a grammar that could be functional and be used to teach English as a first language and in 1969 his work was termed Functional Grammar by Simon Dik. The work begun in Britain on Functional Grammar was developed further by Halliday upon moving to Sydney, Australia in 1975 through the Write It Right project meant to assist students from disadvantaged schools present themselves better. Thus, according to O Donnell (2011:7) developed the SFL theory. Several others have since contributed to the expansion of the approach. 3.2.3 SFL and Appraisal SFL views meaning as being contextualized and particular contexts as determining the language that ought to be employed. Particular aspects of context comprise elements such as topics being discussed, the language users and the medium of communication. These elements are used to describe the linguistic variation in a given text, more widely known as register (Halliday 1985: 12). Register is seen as a linguistic consequence of the interaction of the already mentioned aspects of context which are called by Halliday "field, tenor and mode". These aspects have already been discussed above and what it is they refer to has already been delved into. A key element in the SFL theory is the Appraisal framework. This framework has been described by Sabao (2013) as being an extension of SFL. Sabao (2013:51), Appraisal, according to White (2001) quoted by is concerned with the linguistic resources by which texts/speakers come to express, negotiate and naturalise particular inter-subjective and ultimately ideological positions. Within this broad scope, the theory is concerned more particularly with the language of evaluation, attitude and emotion, and with a set of resources which explicitly position a text s proposals and propositions interpersonally. That is, it is concerned with those meanings which vary the terms of the speaker s engagement with their utterances, which vary what is at stake interpersonally both in individual utterances and as the texts unfolds cumulatively. The manner, thus, in which Appraisal concerns the linguistic resources that we use to construct identity for ourselves as well as associate or disassociate ourselves with certain ways of thinking, makes it relevant for this present study. The framework is also concerned with the analysis of the Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 47 manner in which the subjective presence of the author in a written text. Authors, as Sabao (2013:51) argues, are visible in text from the manner in which they adopt a positioning with regards to the material they are presenting (speaking/writing about) as well as those with which they are communicating . This framework has been employed particularly in the analysis of the notion of authorial stance in studies such as Sabao, 2013 and Gales, 2010. 3.2.4 Appraisal The appraisal-theoretic framework explicates how speakers/writers exploit appraisal semantic domains to agree or disagree, approve or condemn on the basis of socially determined value positions (White, 2002, p.1) and how they invoke linguistic resources to enlist a similar response from their listeners/readers Three domains interact in Appraisal: Attitude, Engagement and Graduation. These three domains are then used in Appraisal to study embedded emotions and reactions to phenomena within texts. Because we have argued previously (in the explication of SFL as a theory) that language is contextual and meaning is in context it follows that after appraising the communication of the other party involved in interlocution or the possible reactions of an audience (such as a reader of a newspaper article or column), a participant in a communicative event can then position themselves evaluatively with respect to the viewpoints of respondents (real or imagined). Attitude relates to feelings, judgements of behavior and evaluation of things and is in turn constituted of three things: AFFECT, JUDGEMENT and APPRECIATION. Engagement on the other hand, according to Martin and White (2005) quoted in Sabao (2013:52) is modeled out of Bakhtin s (1981) notions of dialogism and heteroglossia which place meaning-making within the context of the multitude of voices or texts on the same subject. It thus concerns itself with the sourcing attitudes and the play of voices around opinions in discourse. Graduation is concerned with grading phenomena and in this case feelings are amplified and categories blurred . A thorough explanation of the Appraisal theory can be found Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 48 on the following web www.grammatics.com/appraisal/AppraisalOutline/Unframed/AppraisalOutline.htm reference The theory, according to the website is concerned with the linguistic resources for by which texts/speakers come to express, negotiate and naturalise particular inter-subjective and ultimately ideological positions. The website lists some of the key references on Appraisal as including (in chronological order): Iedema et al. 1994, Martin 1995a, Martin 1995b, Christie and Martin 1997, Martin 1997, Coffin 1997, Eggins and Slade 1997 (especially chapter 4), White 1998, Martin 2000, Coffin 2000, White 2000, and Körner 2001. The site goes on to explain the three aspects of Attitude, Engagement and Graduation in the following manner: Attitude refers to values by which speakers pass judgements and associate emotional/affectual responses with participants and processes as in the examples below.   Well, I've been listening to the two guys who are heroes [value judgement] and I admire [affect] them both. Pop Group Republica - super-schlock stinkers only a Pepsi executive could ever love In the examples above, we note how speakers assign judgements which are value laden to situations and use these to assign identity to persons or things they are talking about or to. Following this, they go on to express feelings as to how they are affected. In the first example feelings of admiration are expressed for the persons described as heroes. As can be observed the theory (Appraisal) thus is apt for the present study. Engagement on the other hand relates to the linguistic resources that are available for positioning the speaker or author s voice with regards the various propositions and proposals conveyed by a text. Examples where we see engagement in action include in the following examples:  Perhaps, it may , I think Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) ,surely -these are modals of probability 49  It seems ,It appears - reality phase  In fact  Am compelled to conclude that   , I am compelled to think/conclude.., sources report suggesting that - attribution (hearsay/projection) , evidence abounds ,It is true , we do have a dog- proclamation Predictably, of course- expectation Amazingly, strangely- counter expectation Graduation is said to refer to the values by which speakers raise or lower the personal impact, force or volume of their utterances and Graduate (blur or sharpen) the focus of their semantic categorisations. Force is indicated through the use of terms such as slightly, somewhat, very, completely while Focus may be shown by use of adjectives such as effectively, true and pure amongst others as in the following examples:    They effectively signed his death warrant He is a true friend Such pure folly is unprecedented etc. This research borrows an example showing the three aspects in an interview on American radio station, ABC. For example [ABC radio interview] MITCHELL: There is an argument, though, is there [attribution], the banks have been a bit [graduation: force] greedy [attitude] I mean, the profits are high and good on them [attitude], they're entitled to have high profits, but at the same time the fees are bordering on [graduation: focus] the unreasonable [attitude] now. PRIME MINISTER MR HOWARD: Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 50 Well, there's a lot of [graduation: force] anger [attitude: affect] about many [engagement: force] of the fees and this is really why, I say again, [engagement: proclamation] the more competition we can have the better [attitude]. And there's no doubt that [engagement: probability] home loan interest rates, in particular, are lower now because of competition The three aspects within the theory thus explained, it is clear how the theory fits into the current study as it can be used as a tool for establishing identity as well as ideology within the articles chosen for this research. The twinned phenomena of identity and ideology will be explained shortly following an exploration of the nature of the sample articles chosen for this research. What follows therefore is a discussion on genre and newspaper article types. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 51 Chapter 4 Identity and Ideology creation in Tafataona Mahoso s articles: An Appraisal perspective 4.0 Introduction This chapter will outline the key that will be used for analysis of the articles that will be used in this study. The key has been proposed by Van and Thomson (2008) and has been used in previous researches working from the Appraisal framework. The key outlines how the Appraisal framework is to be used in this chapter. Concern in this study in terms of the three metafunctions of language is with the interpersonal function particularly and the study will therefore pay particular attention to this as compared to the other metafunctions. 4.1 Appraisal Theory and the Evaluative Key The research will hereafter proceed by means of appraising chosen articles by Tafataona Mahoso from The Sunday Mail and The Patriot. The researcher will use Appraisal resources to show where the three elements of Attitude, Affect and Judgement may be found in the articles by Tafataona Mahoso. The definitions of these aspects within the Appraisal theory (a sub theory within SFL) will be revisited initially. The study will use the following edited analytical key proposed by Van and Thomson (2008:55) and employed in Sabao (2013: viii and 86) in the analysis of hard news reports in Zimbabwe. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 52 For purposes of uniformity with similar studies in the key is reproduced below (with alterations) and employed for the rest of this study. KEY bold underlining = inscribed (explicit) negative attitude bold = implicit (implied) negative attitude italics underlined = inscribed positive attitude italics = invoked positive attitude boxed material = heterogloss (material attributed to an external source) The subtype of the attitude is indicated in square brackets immediately following the relevant span of text: [j] = judgement (positive/negative assessment of human behaviour in terms of social norms) [ap] = appreciation (positive/negative assessment of objects, artefacts, events and states of affairs in terms of systems of aesthetics and other systems of social valuation) [af] = affect (positive/negative emotional response); 1 st af = first person or authorial affect; 3 rd af = observed affect, i.e. the reporter describing the emotional responses of third parties. : material is attributed to an external source as in the case of acknowledgement but the framing is such as to indicate that the writer holds the material to be still open to question, as not yet Kinds of attribution <ack> = acknowledgement : material is attributed to some external source by means of quotation and related formulations. Nothing in the lexicogrammar of the words by which the quotation is framed indicates where the writer stands with respect to propositions being presented i.e. there is no overt indication of the writer favouring or disfavouring the attributed material. It is however possible that the writer s position visà-vis the attributed material will be indicated elsewhere in the text. Attribution is typically via a formulation involving reporting verbs for example, X stated that , X argues that , X believes that or through adjuncts such as according to X <end> = endorsement : material is attributed to an external source as is the case with acknowledgement but the framing is such as to indicate that the writer holds the material as true or valid for example by means of factive reporting such as to prove , to show or to demonstrate ; <dist> = distancing proved. Distancing in English is typically achieved by the use of the reporting verb to claim and by the use of so called scare quotes . *** There is a notion of proclamation <proc> which Van and Thomson (2008) describe as those instances when the reporter makes overt interventions into the text which present themselves as challenging or dismissing some alternative viewpoints. The key proposed by Van and Thomson above, it must be noted, has been used thus far for studies relating to newspaper reports and this current study will use it for opinion columns. The study will hereafter revisit the definition of the three elements that make up attitude namely appreciation, judgement and affect. Martin and White (2006) define attitude as being a system of meanings. White (2007) argues that the Appraisal framework develops interpersonal functionality by functioning on the ways in which speakers or writers construct particular identities and how they position themselves and Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 53 those they are discussing. The Appraisal framework according to the Appraisal website has been attributed to the Write it Right Project that was implemented in the 1980s 1nd 1990s. The theory was developed from the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory. Appraisal resources are used in construing personae, negotiating sociality and solidarity as well as aligning readers and or hearers into a community of shared values and beliefs (ideologies) according to Martin and White (2005:95) quoted by Jakaza (2013:142). Concern in the Appraisal framework is on the subjective presence (which this researcher opines is synonymous with identity and ideology) of the writer/speaker in texts as they adopt stances towards the material that they present and those with whom they communicate. The writers/speakers also align or disalign themselves from actual or potential audiences and thus construe for themselves authorial identities. Context is also seen as playing an important part in Appraisal as in SFL. The resources in the Appraisal framework are: Engagement, Attitude and Graduation. Engagement may be monoglossic or heteroglossic while Attitude consists of Affect, Judgement and Appreciation. Linguistics website: www.grammatics.com explores Attitude and its three subsystems in the following manner: ATTITUDE includes those meanings by which texts/speakers attach an inter-subjective value or assessment to participants and processes by reference either to emotional responses or to systems of culturally-determined value systems. Attitude covers systems of meanings which have traditionally been referred to as emotions, ethics and aesthetics. As a result attitude is concerned with values by which speakers pass judgements and associate emotional/effectual responses with participants. It therefore is concerned with evaluating things, people s character and feelings (Jakaza 2013). The attitude can be the writer s or may be attributed to an external source (hence the Key [pg 37] distinguishes between inscribed and implicit attitudes). As such, this research will try to establish ways of deducing identity and ideology using this resource (of attitude). Attitude therefore is shown to have three subsystems: Affect (emotion), Judgement (ethics) and Appreciation. The three sub-systems within attitude may be summarized as implying: Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 54  AFFECT : the characterisation of phenomena by reference to emotion. Concerned with negative and positive emotional responses and dispositions. The emotions may be directly or implicitly expressed. Examples would include evaluation of feelings as happy or sad, confident or anxious, interested or bored etc. writers may in this case use words that label emotion, denote behavior or describe behavior. 5   JUDGEMENT: the evaluation of human behaviour with respect to social norms APPRECIATION : the evaluation of objects and products (rather than human behaviour) by reference to aesthetic principles and other systems of social value 4.2 Analysis of column on the return of the Zimbabwean dollar Context of Article: following conditions of hyper inflation Zimbabwe suspended the use of a multicurrency system which was initially announced by then Acting Minister of Finance, Patrick Chinamasa. Tendai Biti of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) took over the Finance portfolio after the formation of a Government of National Unity (GNU) which aimed at resolving the political impasse that had seen Zimbabwe being isolated by the international community thus making the nation impoverished. The suspension of the Zimbabwean dollar meant an adoption of foreign currencies such as the South African rand (ZAR) and American dollar (USD). America in the while is seen by ZANU PF as being opposed to the party s policies and yet their currency is the one enjoying the widest circulation in the country with the rand complimenting particularly in terms of small change. In the following article Mahoso makes a case for the return of the Zimbabwean dollar. Structure of Analytical table: the first column contains paragraph numbers while the second has the text that is contained in the original text. The key outlined before is the one that will be used to show instances of the use of appraisal resources. The third column contains brief notes pertaining to structural analysis. 5 Jakaza (2013:40f), Sabao (2013: 53) delve (separately) into the notions of affect, judgement and appreciation on detail highlighting how emotions are complex psychological affective- cognitive responses to the physical and socio-cultural environment. The complexity of emotions is seen as calling on the reader to invest cognitive effort to retrieve emotion. Martin and White (2007) highlight how feelings are construed as either positive or negative. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 55 4.2.1 Analysis of Article Source: The Sunday Mail, 01 June, 2014. Title: Is it time for the dollar to return? Paragraph APPRAISAL ANALYSIS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Number Is it time for the dollar to return? by Tafataona Mahoso Title outlines the issue to be explored/ argued over/ discussed by the author. May also be seen as providing the overall theme of the whole article. Despite the author being an academic doctor this title is not acknowledged here (as a way of posing for an ordinary Zimbabwean perhaps and not an aloof academic) 001 At the peak of neo-liberal euphoria [1st af] Authorial inscribed attitude about the limitless [1st af/ ap] powers of markets alluding to Canadian and free-flowing capital in relation to the economic crisis. The allusion alleged powerlessness[j] and helplessness of is later used for creating states[j] and their central banks, economic juxtapose` between Canada author Linda McQuaig asked economist Pierre and Zimbabwe. Author starts Fortin: <ack> Do we as a country [that off by using a narrative voice is Canada] have any freedom in our economic Attribution policies, given the power of international authentication- Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) used for Scholarly 56 markets? 002 approach. Fortin s answer was emphatic [j, grad]: We Elaboration- have full [grad] freedom. answer can be author uses The rest of his Canadian example to make paraphrased as follows: point. The paraphrase may be The real [grad] barrier to Canada s exercise of attributed to the author as its full [grad] freedom were stock market author makes choices in terms shareholders and bond holders who feared [3rd of the words used. Through af] that Canada s exercise of its full freedom use of Appraisal resources the [ap/j] might mean a lower [ap]Canadian dollar author takes position of or a fluctuating one [j]. <ack> It s a question of empathy towards the ordinary bond salesmen defending the interests of those Canadians they have sold bonds to. 003 The real barrier [j] to Canada s exercise of its Elaboration of the challenges full [ap] freedom were stock market that Canada faced. Author shareholders and bond holders who feared [3rd opines af] that Canada s exercise of its full freedom recovery the challenge were in individuals. might mean a lower Canadian dollar or a The argument is later paralled fluctuating one. <ack> It s a question of bond to the Zimbabwean scenario salesmen defending the interests of those they when author makes argument for have sold bonds to. the return of Zimbabwean dollar. Author uses acknowledgement substantiate stance. 004 the to Canada could [grad] enjoy the autonomy to Judgement- the potential that pursue economic policies aimed at full is before Canada. employment and well-funded social programmes [j]. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 57 005 The administration in office at that time pleaded Elaboration powerless [j] to pursue such polices because response challenge stock markets would not allow it. 006 <ack> policies But is to this failure to deliver on these Attributed not powerlessness[j]. because Rather it of any springs of Canadian economic Appraisal of real Canadian financial situation. from Author sympathizes with the unwillingness [3rd af, j] on the part of Canadians but loathes the government to allow the national currency to drop in value when necessary of angering the financial constituency for fear [3rd af] is too powerful. The author [j]financial thus influential images self constituency. Thus, what we have now is not sympathetic real [ap] impotence but a self-imposed variety. 007 [ap] burden of such as with commoners Zimbabwe has been groaning [ap/ 3rd af] under Elaboration. the that Statement of self-imposed argument by author. Giving powerlessness [ap/j]with regard to its need for a position national currency. and simultaneously judgement 008 Why the apparently inappropriate example of Sub-heading/Theme 009 I can almost hear my readers mumbling [3rd af / Appraisal. Affect Canada is useful ap] that the reference to Canada does not apply engages audience author by because Canada is a much bigger economy suggesting possible reactions. and because it is in a different class of states Tone is engaging. and at a different level of capitalist development [j, ap]. But that is precisely my point: 010 First, Zimbabwe s financial policymakers Elaboration- author develops fear [3rd af] that once the country has a currency argument of its own they would have to actively make the particular highlighting points through choices which Fortin and McQuaig discussed in deliberate use of bullets. Also Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 58 the case of Canada. Up to now these exposes policymakers have avoided that responsibility policymakers. feelings of by clinging on to someone else s currency and refusing to adopt their own [j, att]. 011 Second, the economic terror [ap / j] of 2007- Elaboration- the Appraisal 2008 and the ceaseless [ap / j] chorus about here evokes strong feelings in lack of confidence or lack of credibility are reader. To emphasise, author convenient bogeys [j] in Zimbabwe because uses parallel of song even in Canada where there was no 2007-2008 (ceaseless chorus). Use of catastrophe [ap, j] and no similar destruction negative attitude highlights of confidence, <ack> the administration there strong feelings of author over still pleaded the same helplessness in the face of issue. These judgements show the same market forces which our financial author attitude(s) and are policy makers have also pleaded since the therefore important for the currency debate began in 2009. 012 establishment of identity. In other words, the real barrier [j, ap] to the Elaboration, Judgement conceptualisation and launching of a national author advances argument currency is the fact that all the providers of further posits negative attitude advice on this important matter are stock towards market economists, supermarket economists questioning [af], and bond salesmen. [j] 013 advisors their thus identity ascribing to them a new identity, bond salesmen . The institution of a national currency would Elaboration, Judgement- mean that our financial policymakers would author gives views on what a have to make frequent fiscal and monetary national currency implies for decisions in response to external shocks and Zimbabwe. to take direct responsibility before the bond policymakers Attacks 6 6 The column is penned following the dissolution of the GNU. It is however during the lifespan of the GNU that the multicurrency regime gained momentum and came to be fully implemented. The governing party at the time this article was published was thus struggling to reverse dollarization. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 59 salesmen [j] for most of the consequences of those decisions. So pleading helplessness [j] has been convenient because it has deflected any direct blame for the dire [1st af] financial problems from the policymakers. 014 All the major consultancy papers advising the Attributed same policymakers have avoided describing the reference viewto indirect unnamed Zimbabwe economy and its currency needs documents. Author proceeds beyond the interests of the finance sector[1st af]. to identify particular groups Miners, farmers, workers, peasants, transporters not mentioned in one of the and small manufacturers are nowhere to be seen documents seen as a reference in the long paper by Keith Jefferies, Gibson by policymakers - creates Chigumira and Erinah Chifumbo, which is empathy for his position. entitled A Review of Zimbabwe s Optimum Subtly identifies with the Future Currency Regime under the auspices of ordinary, middle class person. Zimbabwe Economic Policy Analysis and Research Unit (ZEPARU). 016 The reference to Canada is therefore useful [1st Appraisal-author appraises af] here because officials and bond salesmen [j] juxtapose with Canada (gives in Zimbabwe have decided to prolong the picture of self as relevant), absence of a national currency in order to labels policymakers bond achieve the same goal of zero inflation which salesmen . Also appraises the the Bank of Canada was pursuing in the late interests of minority classes 1990s. In other words, minority interests, class as pretending to be what they interests, wrongly masquerade as prudent are not. national policies. [j, ap] Those opposed to the immediate launch of a national currency in Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 60 Zimbabwe can correctly be accused of enjoying differential access to the rare US dollars as a class or as individuals. [j, ap] 017 Neo-liberal Economics as Politics by Other Theme 018 It is necessary [1st af] to conclude with an Concluding Means Argument analysis of the contradictions in the arguments author gives final position by so far made to deny the urgency of a nation attempting to show fallacy of currency: arguments against return of First, the ZEPARU study led by Jefferies was the Zimbabwean dollar. Re- done in 2013 before the Referendum on the Contextualizes arguments and Constitution, before the 31 July 2013 elections, restates fallacies in opposite and before moves by China, Russia and other arguments. major states to start removing the US dollar Author emphasizes need for from its pre-eminent position as the global the dollar s return, celebrates currency [1st af] and international store of value; the rise of other powers other yet policymakers in the Ministry of Finance than America and the continue to rely on the findings of that study displacement of the American as if nothing has changed since it was dollar as the currency of concluded [j]. That study harped [1st af] on choice. alleged [1st af] lack of confidence [3rd af] in national institutions and lack of credibility [1st af] of national policies on every one of its 40 pages. That paper referred to uncertainties and anxieties prevailing then about the unknown outcomes of the Referendum and the elections of 2013.[1st af] Surely, the results of both did not just demonstrate great resilience and high morale among the majority; but they also produced emphatic victory for definite Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 61 policies and a definite national direction.[1st af] Surely a study alleging [1st af] lack of confidence [3rd af] and done before those results cannot be relied upon [af, j] now. 019 Third, the ZEPARU study and others Concluding Argument summarised in it converged on a predominant author gives final position by view <ack> and recommendation whose attempting to show fallacy of implementation and success would depend on arguments against return of third parties, that is the option for Zimbabwe to the Zimbabwean dollar. Rejoin a Common Market Area. Contextualises arguments and Yet the need [1st af, j] for a national currency is restates fallacies in opposite now a matter of economic emergency [ap]. arguments How can recommend any an reasonable option which consultant requires convincing third parties that Zimbabwe should join their currency area? [1st af] If those parties refuse, should the country continue to operate with no money of its own? 020 Fourth, on Page 26, the ZEPARU researchers Concluding Argument . fallacies in reached this weird conclusion [1st af]: The Re-Contextualizes arguments first issue to be addressed is whether the and restates Zimbabwe dollar can or should be reintroduced opposite arguments calling The nationalistic [ap/j] <ack> argument that it is necessary [j]to have a currency to be them weird properly a country has been dealt with earlier; it is primarily a political argument and will not Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 62 be considered further 021 This is wrong [1st af] because it is a caricature Concluding Argument of the nationalist position. This is also wrong author gives final position by [1st af] because it presumes that only attempting to show fallacy of nationalism is political and that politics is arguments against return of irrelevant to economics [j]. Yet the same the Zimbabwean dollar. authors, in reference to Greece, the EU and the The author uses a declarative Eurozone crisis, do in fact recognise the statement to open this intertwining of politics and economics. ARU paragraph. He posits that it is researchers glossed [j] over the example of wrong to separate politics and Botswana and the creation of the pula in 1974 economics and then proceeds on Page 20. In 1974 Botswana left what is to attempt a Justification of referred to as the Rand Union (now being this position. recommended in The Herald Business of 14 May 2014!) Botswana and Southern Africa in 1974 were very confident because they were highly politicised against apartheid South Africa which they were determined to overcome on as many fronts as possible 022 Botswana in 1974 represented the Concluding Argument nationalistic [ap, j]position being denigrated Mahoso draws upon historical by Jefferies and ZEPARU in 2013! Botswana in instances (creating identity1974 did not have the diversified resource base Historian). Author gets into which Zimbabwe possesses [j] in 2014; but it historical narrative by telling had confidence that its one major resource, of the struggle for political diamonds, would earn it sufficient [ap] foreign independence by the Africans. currency reserves to sustain its national Presents currency, the pula. Geopolitically, African position. Afro-centric guerillas in Southern Africa in 1974 helped [j] to Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 63 liberate [j] Portugal from European fascism by defeating the armies of Salazaar and Caetano in Mozambique and Angola. So politics, nationalist politics at that, was a factor in the birth of the pula. It is therefore absurd [1st af, ap] to hear so-called economists [j] telling Zimbabwe to join the Rand Union in order to avoid a national currency without pointing out that all the four members of that union have each its own national currency! 4.2.2 Appraisal and textual analysis This section will provide an overall analysis of the article above and attempt to establish the identities exposed in the article as well as the ideologies through an Appraisal Analysis. As has been highlighted before the article is argumentative in nature and therefore follows a particular rhetorical structure. Key in the rhetorical strategy of any text, including that of newspaper articles, is the way information and comment are organised through thematization. In the first paragraph, Mahoso starts off with an historical allusion by referring to the Canadian economic crisis. The author then moves on to explore the rheme. Through the historical allusion Mahoso creates for himself personae as a Historian. This identity has been queried by Blessing Miles Tendi (2010) who argues that some of the history though real is patriotic history which is a potent narrative conscripting elements of history meant to generate support for ZANU PF.7 If this is the case then the case that Mahoso makes may even have ZANU PF ideology all over it. 7 Zimbabwe African national Union Patriotic Front (ZANU PF) is a revolutionary party that ascended to power in Zimbabwe in 1980 and has only faced stiff challenge starting in 2000 from the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 64 This is however only an assumption and will need to substantiated or falsified from findings in this study. Through the use of emotive language Mahoso delves into discussion on Economics and in line with scholarly genres uses acknowledgements to substantiate his positions. We thus see new personae of Mahoso as a scholar. There are several characters in the introduction used by Mahoso to bring about his attitudinal positions like Fortin whom he labels an Economist. The second paragraph elaborates on the responses of the Canadians to an economic challenge tracing the challenges to what are labeled bond salesmen . The group thus identified is seen as enemies in the way the author employs a negative attitude towards this group. Mahoso uses attribution in the paragraph, an approach that is characteristic of argumentative and scholarly writing. This observation implies that the opinion article is following the generic tenets of both academic as well as newspaper opinion columns where acknowledgement and attribution are key components. The use of attribution in opinion columns serves as reinforcement to an already established ideological position which is established through the writer voice in news genres. in the context of this particular article, Mahoso pursues a theme within Zimbabwean politics particularly in Zanu PF where the notion of sovereignty is popular. The theme is one that Tendi (2013) views as being an attempt by intellectuals to rewrite the history of Zimbabwe in such a way that they can win over political enemies. In the academic article acknowledgement is a critical component and where such is not done authors are liable to being seen as plagiarizing and what they propose is not seen as enjoying popular support and may even be discredited on this basis. Paragraphs three and four pursue the same line of argument as the second, elaborating further on the propositions made in paragraph one. Mahoso utilizes several attributions and then makes explicit judgments in paragraphs four and five. The author in describing the attitude of the administrators displays negative affect. The policymakers are later described as being in the minority and we therefore see the author as exuding a pro-majority ideology while the policymakers are anti majority in their policies. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 65 The author pursues the Canadian theme emotively and draws a stark parallel in paragraph seven when he emotively uses negative affect showing the level of suffering in the nation through the word groaning there is therefore use of graduation here since the word chosen in this instance is higher on the scale of words describing pain. The author empathizes with the nation while expressing strong dislike for the policymakers and those making the national currency weak. One of the generic aspects of Opinion columns that seems apparent from the study above is the way affect features along with judgements. This is in contrast with findings from studies on hard news (Sabao 2013, Gales 2010) the researcher noted numerous instances where the writer expresses personal feelings and through judgements also invites his audience to share these feelings with him. The author talks of economic terror thus labeling those he sees as fighting against the ordinary person on the street terrorists . He pursues the idea of war to an extent he takes on militant personae. The declarative statements made in the concluding paragraphs create a picture of someone who is knowledgeable imparting knowledge to those who are not. The author takes on the personae of teacher. A multiplicity of identities is thus apparent from the analysis done in this section. A proposition had been made initially that it may be true that Tafataona Mahoso may be toeing a ZANU PF ideology seeing the way he helps rewrite patriotic history meant to garner support for the political party s political machinations. This article however does not provide much to substantiate such positioning. An analysis of the choices that Mahoso ,makes in this particular article is also pertinent as this is the very premise of SFL. In the first paragraph Mahoso employs the word euphoria which depicts the intensity of the excitement at the time. The context in which the word has been used reflects Mahoso s negative attitudes and the highly emotive term in this case may be used as a way of highlighting the author s utter disgust. The disgust of the author is further apparent from the manner he uses appreciation in describing the powers of the markets as limitless and the judgement that the states give a picture of being powerless which view is doubted by the author. Our research question is thus addressed here as we see the manner in which language has been employed by the author using the Appraisal framework and note his personal reactions to the Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 66 issues he is discussing. These personal reactions eventually create in the reader a generalised picture of the manner in which the author thinks and eventually an identity. In the second paragraph by qualifying/graduating the barrier to Canada s exercise of full freedom with the word, real , Mahoso shows the reader that there are numerous barriers to the full freedom yet there is one that he sees as being the true cause of the nation not enjoying such. The researcher noted that the article is full of judgements by the author as well as attributions. Paragraph 006 for instance has three judgements in three sentences which translate into a judgement per sentence. Judgements may thus be seen as a characteristic feature of the Opinion article in which the writers strategically employ attributions to support whatever judgements they have come up with. 4.3 Article analysis: The Zimbabwe we want vs. Zimbabwe we have 4.3.1 Context: in this article Tafataona Mahoso continues to make the case for the return of the Zimbabwean dollar. This article follows attacks from several sections particularly within the media fraternity and from Economists like Eddie Cross (the late) who was a member of the opposition MDCT8. Source: The Sunday Mail, 30 March, 2014. Paragraph Number APPRAISAL ANALYSIS STRUCTURE ANALYSIS Zimbabwe we want vs Zimbabwe we have Article Title and Byline. The by Tafataona Mahoso in the rest of the article. Here, title captures the central theme Mahoso employs analogy 8 Following infighting within the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) the party experienced a split with Professor Welshman Ncube breaking away form the party with other party members. The breakaway group claimed legitimacy as did the original group. The two groups were thus surnamed after their leaders as a way of distinguishing them in the 2013 elections. The MDCT was led by Morgan Tsvangirai while MDCN was led by Welshman Ncube Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 67 between two Zimbabwes. 01 Provisions of the new Constitution of Outlines the theme (provisions Zimbabwe, which could be said to suggest of the new constitution) values for guiding the Zimbabwe Agenda for Socio Chapter Economic Two which Transformation, is entitled include National Objectives: Objectives to guide state and all 02 institutions and agencies of government. Section 13 requires the State and all its Elaboration. Zeroes in on a institutions self-reliance to promote private initiative and particular <ack> and to bring about constitution. section of the Uses balanced development of the different areas of acknowledgements to highlight Zimbabwe, in particular a proper balance in the issues of concerns (thematic) development of rural and urban areas. <ack> within the constitution Section 33 provides that The State must take Elaboration and promote indigenous knowledge systems, Acknowledgement employed properties of animal and plant life possessed by article positional including knowledge of the medicinal and other to give position. The quoted local communities and people. <ack> 03 makes a statement which position the author later comments upon. Although it is compromised [1staf]by its Appraisal expresses judgement translation of African thinking into English, which is negative but has Section 16 on Culture is also important [j]: provisions for positivity. Exudes identity of Objective person able to put things on a scale 04 Although it is compromised by its translation of Appraisal Expresses positive African thinking into English, Section 16 on views on aspect viewed negatively initially. Identity of Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 68 Culture is also important [j]:  objective and scholarly critic <ack> (1) The State and all its institutions and Elaboration, agencies of government at every level must Judgement. Appraisal, Appreciates the promote and preserve cultural values and notion that people ought to have practices which enhance the dignity, well-being their well being safeguarded by and equality of Zimbabweans  the state. Exudes identity of Humanist as well as Critic <ack> (2) The State and all institutions and Elaboration. agencies of government at every level, and all Implicit judgement expressed Zimbabwean citizens, must endeavour preserve and protect Zimbabwe s heritage [j]  citizens, must endeavour to through the acknowledgement <ack> (3) The State and all institutions and Elaboration. measures to ensure due respect for the dignity of through the acknowledgement agencies of government at every level must take traditional institutions. [j] While the good intentions behind Judgement. Implicit judgement expressed these Elaboration. expresses provisions are appreciated, the language used appreciation for intentions but betrays [j] the attitude, even ignorance and negates bias [j], of the drafters in several ways: 06 Judgement. agencies of government at every level, and all Implicit judgement expressed preserve and protect Zimbabwe s heritage [j] 05 to through the acknowledgement <ack> (2) The State and all institutions and Elaboration. Zimbabwean  Judgement. There is an Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) underlying and this appreciation through use of negative affect and conjuction While persistent Elaboration, Appraisal 69 assumption that the values of unhu/ubuntu are Highlights the negative views of not contemporary [j]. Therefore the best that can others with regards hunhu and be done with them is to tolerate them and give shows loathing for these view them some respect. 07 imagin self as Preserver of tradition( Traditionalist) There is an underlying assumption that the Implicit appraisal- the author values of unhu/ubuntu are marginal, fragile and notes the negative views of a mostly obsolete and impractical; so that the homogenous group. These are main reason for enshrining them in the new attributed views with author Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe is to labeling group. Ideology help preserve <ack> them, just in case our highlighted here children totally forget that such values and practices once existed. [j] 08 It is not clear that the drafters understood Elaboration. that the philosophy of unhu/ubuntu provided expresses the driving spirit behind the abolition of elaborating Judgement- an opinion on the while drafting Rhodesian apartheid and the creation of modern process and the errors made Zimbabwe. It is not clear that the drafters in the process understood that unhu/ubuntu in Zimbabwe is a revolutionary philosophy. 09 It is therefore not surprising that there is little Judgement Author expresses economic research in Zimbabwe which focuses opinion ascribing a negative on the rural [af] population and economy. perspective towards the rural population by economic policymakers thus imaging self as advocate population. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) for the 70 rural 10 Most economists and journalists resisting the Elaboration of argument. creation of a national currency assume that the Gives position of judgement urban minority speak for the rural majority on with regards economists and such matters journalists schism others 11 author thus creates between When he was still Zimbabwe s Prime Minister, Elaboration- self creates and schism Morgan Tsvangirai put the neoliberal pseudo between self and the former [1st af]-modernist view crudely [1st af], saying: prime Minister, Tsvangirai who We can t build a national economy on peasants shows negative attitude towards [3rd af] . Having everyone going into farming is people he calls peasants and not sustainable. We have to move people from those he holds responsible for the farms to industries rather than removing resultant situation of a large people from the industries to the farms because I peasantry. don t see that working. <ack> sympathises peasantry does not 12 The author with while thus the Tsvangirai Setting aside the demonstration of ignorance Elaboration- author displays [j, 1st af] about the way industries are built and negative about the exact location of the Zimbabwe Tsvangirai affect and his towards views economy, what is also implied in Tsvangirai s describing him as ignorant. speech is that the socio-economic transformation Ideologically it may be argued in Zim Asset is the same thing as transition in that the writer is anti Tsvangirai neoliberal and opposition jargon and it means and anti the iideological peasants cannot create change or transformation. position of Tsvangirai. They must transit from being peasants to being industry employees in cities. But are urban workers the highest level of evolution for the Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 71 Africans? 133 Indeed, in such a view, peasants are not drivers Judgement- Extends the of the transformation intended in Zim Asset. At argument as to how he views best, they have to be driven from the land to Tsvangirai expressing thoughts the imaginary industries of neoliberalism on Tsvangirai s thinking and before there can emerge a national industrial standpoint economy 14 Yet the demand for Zimbabwe neupfumi hwayo Judgementhwose9 author employs <ack> came from peasants and attribution to create empathy for children of peasants; and yet the only real his transformations to have taken place ideological position by in employing use of vernacular. Zimbabwe in the last 40 years have been driven Ideologically aligns self with by peasants 15 peasants These are, first the transformation of colonial Elaboration of idea that Rhodesia into modern-day Zimbabwe; and, development in Zimbabwe has second, the transformation of white Rhodesian been predominantly driven by a land monopoly and colonial land tenure into the rural population-a view not current land ownership scenario through the shared by Tsvangirai. African land reclamation movement and the revolution in land tenure which took place specially after 2000. People remember the role 9 These words are presumably taken from a liberation war song by Chinx Chingaira Nyika yeZimbabwe . The words translate to mean, We want Zimbabwe and all its wealth . The author thus aligns himself with the liberation struggle and the ideals and ideology thereof. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 72 of Svosve and Nyamandhlovu in that revolution 16 Yet the African peasant base in unhu is Stancetaking- author highlights viewed in neoliberal economics and regime personal views as to how neochange politics as primitive baggage [j] liberals view the peasant. Author takes stance opposed to industrialization and which must be cleansed out of the African internationalization. Through population before Zimbabwe can industrialise negative affect shows disdain and fit international best practice. That is why for approach employed in Zim all the major Zim Asset workshops must be asset and the lack of conducted in jargon [1st af] and jibberish [1st engagement of the majority af, j] that is incomprehensible to the majority demonstrated by the use of [j]; that is why all the main Zim Asset technical (economics) language <ack> sessions have to be ( jargon"). The attributed word conducted in air-conditioned hotels by alienated training shows author s view bureaucrats whose sole qualification is that they which may show that he does training know how to administer a bureaucracy which is not appreciate the approach consuming more than 70 percent of the national employed by these budget in US dollars! policymakers and what they regard as trining is not so to him 17 President Robert Mugabe took a practical Elaboration- author continues approach to Zim Asset by providing seed and narrative by glorifying the fertiliser to resettled and peasant farmers, by- President and extolling him for passing bureaucrats, technocrats and NGOs by-passing the usual donating seed to rural farmers. Attacks policymakers and other key players with knowledge (technocrats) 18 The farmers would have doubled or trebled their Appraisal Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) of the expert potential 73 hectrage [af]for the 2013-2014 cropping season inherent within the farmers. in response to the increase in affordable inputs Author hypothesizes that thee or they would have used their own funds in local farmers could have done well if currency to match or treble the President s using local currency and thus implicitly contribution. further argument for the currency s return. President. 19 makes Sings praises for The result is that the Ministry of Agriculture Affect- author shows negative and Mechanisation has been caught off guard attitude towards the officials in because the silos deteriorated during the lean the Ministry of Agriculture and years of drought and economic crisis the ill preparedness. Shows that there have been challenging times 20 The Grain Marketing Board (GMB) is uncertain Judgement- GMB officials how to collect, store and preserve all that shown to be clueless as to how locally produced maize and how to pay all the they will go about collecting the farmers for the maize on delivery using an grain. almost non-existent US dollar budget. [j] 21 Appreciation is shown for local farmers. also Those farmers who delivered maize to the Elaboration of the failures by GMB in May to July 2013 are just now the technocrats. The description receiving their payments in late March 2014, of the harvest as being bumper not through direct Treasury funding of the shows GMB but through a loan offered positive appreciation to and attitude by the author Government by CBZ Bank. There are three broader points to observe about the 2014 bumper harvest [j] Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 74 22 First, we would be talking about three to four Author advances argument million tonnes of maize if we had better further that the farmers would liquidity and if we were paying the equivalent produce better yields if there US$10 for a 50 kilogramme bag of fertilizer was a local currency 23 instead of US$40. A 10kg seed packet of sugar beans cost US$30 Elaboration in the 2013-2014 planting season, when it should normally costs US$5 to US$8. Similar prices also applied to other various inputs and chemicals required to grow tobacco, cotton, soya beans and groundnuts. 24 This means that both the President and the Elaboration individual farmer were severely [grad] restricted by the local price-structure based on the expensive and mostly inaccessible US dollar [j]. This limitation also arises from the highly skewed wage structure based on the US dollar. 25 The President would have purchased four to five Elaboration times the quantity of seed and fertiliser [j]for the same resettled and peasant farmers if liquidity had been in the form of a national currency. 26 We should in fact challenge our economic The use of plural in this case is planners and technocrats to quantify the a rhetorical move aimed at deflationary costs of the expensive US dollars creating empathy for writer s used in Zimbabwe, together with the costs of the argument. The writer here uses Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 75 absence of a national currency a plural so that his position will be seen as having popular support. 27 There is at least a double impact, first because Elaboration & Judgement the US dollars are more expensive [af] to obtain author argues that the American here than in the rest of the region; second, dollar is expensive and that because the expensive [1st af]US dollars South African goods being reaching Zimbabwe make South African imports brought into Zimbabwe are into this country feel like [af] 28 dumping. <ack> being dumped into the nation. In the same way, the profit margins for tobacco Elaboration- Author expresses farmers would be much wider [1st af] if input positive thoughts on what might prices here were based on a local source of have been possible for tobacco liquidity instead of the expensive US dollars 29 farmers in the event that a local currency was in use Much wider would also be the profit margins for diamond, gold, and platinum mining. It can therefore be demonstrated that use of the US dollar as a substitute for a national currency has become a clear and present obstacle to the economic boom which is waiting to happen 30 In this situation, it is important to go to our Pan- Referencing/ historical African heritage now for guidance. Booker T allusion- author refers to the Washington is one of the founders of Pan- teachings Africanism. This is what he had to say against Africanist, of leading Booker pan- T Africans who always yearned for external Washington as a way of giving Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 76 rescue, Africans whose disposition was to his opinion piece an ideological escape from themselves 31 identity. A ship lost at sea for many days suddenly Acknowledgement/Attribution sighted a friendly vessel. From the mast of the author refers to teachings of unfortunate vessel was seen a signal, Water, Washington to show assumed water; we die of thirst. The answer from the wisdom friendly vessel Cast down your bucket where resources. of An using local ideological you are. The captain of the distressed vessel, at position is clearly visible in last heeding the injunction, cast down his bucket, and it came up full of fresh, sparkling water from (the gulf of) the Amazon River came back, Cast down your bucket where you are. Water, water; send us water, ran up from the distressed vessel, and was answered, Cast down your bucket where you are. A third and fourth signal for water was answered,. 32 For Madzimbahwe, the bucket means indigenous Explanation of metaphor used knowledge and values, technology, the in previous paragraph techniques, the science, the skills, the literacy, illustrating the stance that the the education and all the other resources which author holds with regards we possess. The maize story in 2014 means that foreign solutions as opposed to it is the peasants who know best [1st af] show to indigenous ones. By borrowing use that bucket! For too long, our institutions from Washington the author have viewed themselves as training corridors for exudes an ideological position channelling the best and brightest professors and (Pan Africanism) which is Group A students to the Anglo-Saxon world carried into the next paragraph. who, through aid projects, would then send some Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 77 of ours back under the guidance of expatriates who would then draw up blueprints or amend what we have drawn up to suit so-called [af] international best practices. Even worse are most of those who were trained in the western universities and physically returned home to Zimbabwe but have not actually come home [af] 33 When they [af] think of the Zimbabwe economy Negative affect shown through they[af] cannot see beyond the unreal numbers the use of euphemism where the produced by urban-based trade unions with no author uses trade; the Confederation of Zimbabwe and Industries with no industry; schools of These us they . A them attitude is apparent. point Strategic Planning and Business with neither ideological to varying perspectives a relevant and original strategy nor a thriving between the author and the business; and departments of economics who policymakers pointed out have produced no original research [j] on the earlier. In this paragraph trade land revolution, on the rural majority, on unions, the CZI and technocrats resource nationalism, on diamonds, platinum, are pointed to as enemies of the coal, lithium or on the impact of illegal sanctions land revolution on their people. 34 If we take Booker T Washington s illustration, Explanation to elaborate the the question of a national currency and liquidity Booker T Washington allusion in Zimbabwe today, for instance, is similar to the falsely perceived lack of fresh water in the gulf Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 78 of the Amazon River. 35 The peasants have produced two million tonnes Notes that American dollars are of maize but the Grain Marketing Board is scarce and hence suggests need waiting for a budget in scarce [j] US dollars to for the return repair silos built with Zimbabwe dollars using Zimbabwean dollar. of the local brick and cement 20 or so years ago. [af, j] 36 The country s fuel imports are being blended Negative attitude towards with locally produced ethanol which should Ministry of Finance officials for make fuel cheaper. But the Ministry of Finance taxing motorists while they are has raised the cost of this fuel by increasing already suffering tax in order to try to convince us that we can overcome the liquidity crunch by taxing the few US dollars circulating among motorists 37 The same motorists are also being asked to pay Empathizes with the motorists for road repair and maintenance through toll- who have to part with their gate fees in the same foreign currency, again in money in different ways order to maintain the illusion [j] that the liquidity crunch [1st af, ap] can be ended through more efficient means of squeezing [af] 38 out of motorists the few US dollars they have. The local government and city councils who Shows have recently been elevated distaste for local through governments thinking that they constitutional provisions are also pretending can get money by forcibly that their lack of budget can be resolved by making motorists pay parking setting up armies of parking fee collectors to fees. Elaboration Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 79 force anyone stopping or parking on their city 39 streets to pay one US dollar per hour! Each time the same motorist goes to a different Further elaboration of how section of the city; he or she confronts a local government authorities different company collecting parking fees for are making that particular turf and must therefore pay for suffer. 40 the motorist parking all over again Those who are tourists who have just hired Describes city parking tolls temporary vehicles to use, or those who are from using negative affect. Portrays out of town and unaware of this systemic pick- the tolls as systemized theft pocketing often find their vehicles towed away hence shows ideology that is and must pay US$400 each time that happens in anti corruption and anti-local order to get the car back! 41 government. The same city dweller who must pay the city Elaboration taken further by US$400 for every towed car will get home to portraying suffering of urbanites find water bills and bills for property rates which further. Makes further argument have accumulated over several months because from an evaluation of current they just cannot be paid in foreign currency. The situations (after dollarization) q is that when city dwellers used to pay those and the historical past (before bills in the national currency, the taps were dollarization)always full of water and the rubbish bins were analysis always collected. Since city dwellers began to scholarly pay in foreign currency, there has been no water approach and comparative evaluation, and a academic and the rubbish dumps on the streets are bigger 42 than the soil mounds at a disused gold mine. To maintain the fiction that the US dollar will Judgement and Elaboration create an economic boom [af] without any Author describes the national currency, the taxation system is about to postulations that the American be extended to vendors and owners of tuck- dollar would bring an economic shops who have suddenly been rebaptised as boom as fictitious Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 80 small-to-medium-scale entrepreneurs solely operating in foreign currency and selling everything from matohwe and mazhanje to masawu and madora in foreign currency! The schools have not been left behind. Despite Elaboration- 43 the columnist efforts by Government to keep fees low, extends his argument further Government schools cannot operate their own showing that even schools have low-cost economy. The US dollars circulating not been spared from the here arrive here with a huge mark-up [j] problems that come with the use already; and the rest of the environment is of the American dollar. geared to squeeze as much foreign currency as possible, especially from little people.\[j] Some of the following newspaper articles <ack> Appreciation and judgment. 44 may be exaggerated or supported only with Author uses acknowledgement inadequate data, but they serve to show a to augment his argument growing trend, a mounting awareness [ap] of the economic effects of the absence of a national currency. Most of this growing awareness [ap] is among people who themselves may not accept that the issues they point out form part of the national currency story.   Ministers vehicles face seizure for lack Elaboration- of (payment of US$11 million), Zimbabwe Mail, March 25 2014;  different The newspaper articles to make case for a return to the Zimbabwean Hwange companies fail to remit funds, dollar. (due to lack of liquidity), Zimbabwe Mail, 25 March 2014  uses The Prison Services hit by fuel crisis (due to lack of funds), The Zimbabwe Mail, 25 March 2014; Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 81  Deposits struggles to Protection pay Corporation depositors, Zimbabwe Mail, 24 March 2014;  Interbank facility (of US 100 million) no panacea to liquidity woes, Zimbabwe Mail, March 24 2014;  (for failure to pay out on maturity), US (monetary) policies Cheap US$120 imports million costing annually, Business, March 24 2014;  worsening Zimbabwe s liquidity crunch, Business, March 24 2014;  The Bank sued over US$500 000 deposit Daily News, March 24 2014;  The Herald Zimbabwe Herald Avoid pricing water (in US dollars) out of poor s reach, Southern Eye, March 24 2014;  Passport demand high as many flee economic problems, Newsday March 24 2014;  Fresh waves of Zim migrants flee worsening economy, March 23 2014;  45 Southern Eye, Industrial area turns into Zimbabwe ruins, The Standard, March 23 2014; While these newspaper stories point to an Author summates arguments by obviously urgent situation requiring immediate pointing out a number of points action, it is important to point out a few glaring that contradictions: Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) he thinks should be appreciated from his argument 82 piece. 46  Most economists and economic reporters Author employs bullets fail to do research to quantify the claims summate his arguments. made in the stories, for instance, what is the impact on production of the fact that Zimbabwe uses the most expensive US dollar bills?  The refusal to document the impact of lack of a national currency parallels the refusal to quantify the impact of illegal sanctions over the last 15 years.  While it is obvious that these stories report problems which are currency related, the tendency to avoid mention of the absence of a national currency is almost absolute.  Most of these stories are based on what is happening in urban centres, with a few referring to the farming sector  The peasant population is ignored most of the time in economic reporting. Peasants feature mainly when they need charity, such as in case of the TokweMukosi and Tsholotsho disasters. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 83 to 4.3.1 Appraisal and structure analysis This section will provide an overall analysis of the article above and attempt to establish the identities exposed in the article as well as the ideologies through an Appraisal Analysis. As has been highlighted before the article is argumentative in nature and therefore follows a particular rhetorical structure. Key in the rhetorical strategy of any text as mentioned before, including that of newspaper articles, is the way information and comment are organised through thematization. What comes first is the theme and this is followed by the rheme. In the first paragraph for instance we note that the writer focuses his attention on the Constitution of Zimbabwe. What follows after the mention of that document is an elaboration of what it is that the writer is concerned with regards this important document. The introductory paragraph and title may be seen as providing the theme for the rest of the opinion column. Everything that follows constitutes the rheme. Characteristically we may notice a feature of opinion columns in which the writer usually takes a stance or makes an assertion in the first paragraph and what follows thereafter is an elaboration. This is a feature that is characteristic of the feature/opinion columns by Tafataona Mahoso. The opinion column is frequently characterized by quotations (in the Appraisal Analysis column denoted as an acknowledgement <ack>). Such acknowledgement is frequently seen in scholarly material and thus the opinion column is similar to the scholarly genre in this manner. While this feature is characteristic of the opinion column this researcher opines that this feature is so because of a characteristic tenet in terms of the authors which is the notion that they have academic inclinations and for their views to receive wide audience and acceptance there is need for acute elaboration which has wide support. This therefore leads to a postulation that the academic researcher and the opinion columnist are operating within the same framework despite the different genres. The observation is primarily taken in this case from paragraph number two (02) in which we witness two acknowledgements as the author quotes from the new constitution. McGregor (2003) (quoted in Landa 2012:59 argues that discourse helps shape and constrain our identities, relationships, and systems of knowledge and beliefs and that Our identities and the nature of our social relationships and or knowledge and belief systems are shaped and constrained by the language and words espoused by us and by others (2003;3-4) Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 84 Landa p53 what speakers say and how they say it, in a particular context and situation is particularly determine by their social status in relation to the people they are saying it to, thus power and influence are exercised in every encounter, regardless of the base of power . 4.4 Article: Anglo-Saxon crisis, Zim s moment in history 4.4.1 Context of Article: The article focuses on the opportunities that Tafataona Mahoso sees as presenting themselves to Zimbabwe s economic blueprint, Zim-Asset. Zim-Asset is an economic blueprint that was formulated by Zanu PF during the 2013 election as a campaign tool but is yet to yield results for ordinary Zimbabweans. The economic blueprint has not been very popular even within Zanu PF itself with some politicians describing it as pie in the sky. 4.4.2 Article Analysis Source: The Sunday Mail, 16-22 June 2013. Paragraph APPRAISAL ANALYSIS Number 001 TEXTUAL ANALYSIS Anglo-Saxon crisis, Zim s moment in TITLE history The Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Introduction- gives the theme for the Socio-Economic Development (Zim Asset) rest of the article. The author starts is at risk of being detached from its off by making a judgement that Zimrevolutionary origins [j, 1st af] and Asset is at risk of failing owing to objectives by exclusive elite of civil bureaucracy. The author attacks servants and certain cliques within the unnamed civil servants who he sees higher education establishment. Reasons for as Western educated as reasons for 002 the risk have been known for a long time [j]. According to former South the non-performance of Zim-Asset. African The author attributes material as President Thabo Mbeki s intervention in the means Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) towards substantiating 85 New African magazine for April 2005: 003 <ack> The challenge for an position. African Stance of former South African university should be viewed as a call that president, Mbeki being highlighted insists that critical and transformative here. Mbeki s view of African educators in Africa embrace an indeginous education and the perspective that African worldview and root their nation s educators should embrace an African educational paradigms in an indigenous worldview is one that supplies the socio-cultural and epistemological theme pursued by Mahoso in this framework. Among others, this implies that article as a whole. all educational curricula in Africa should have Africa as their focus., and as aresult, be indeginous-grounded or oriented. 004 However, eight years after Mbeki s call, one Negation: Author gives a view (by a of the key advisors for the United Kingdom member of the British intelligentsia government, Richard Dowden, had this to that is opposite that proffered by say (the Herald, October 9, 2013) about Mbeki 005 African edocation for Zimbabwe[j]: <ack> We cannot compete with the Chinese Attributed material showing the in manufacturing (tangible goods) [j], but British making a confession of their the one thing Britain has (manufactured) that inability to compete against the Africa needs is education. As African Chinese. In the attributed material economies go on growing (British Dowden shows how the British have sponsored) education would not only be a attempted to use education as a tool good earner in the short term but, in the long for hegemony. Dowden appraises the term, would create relationships (with future benefits that the British can get by African leaders) far into the future. use of education and uses an emotive word, benefit. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) good to show positive 86 006 <ack> Generations of Africans have Judgement: the lexical resources mortgaged their futures [j] on getting to employed in this attributed material college in Britain Tertiary education in show the capitalist nature of British most of Africa is dire [ap]. Distance education where it education is now possible but I do not know mortgaging of futures. is seen as many Africans who went to university and did not enjoy the experience. 007 This revealing [j] article was a response to Judgement: the use of lexical items the electoral victory of the liberation in this case shows the author taking a movement in the Zimbabwe African Union position on the basis of the attributed Patriotic Front (ZANU PF) against a British material. The article is revealing in project called the Movement for Democratic the sense that previously there have Change, founded by the British and the been views of British education that Rhodesians in 1999. have glorified it yet little attention has been paid to its negative aspects. 008 Zim-Asset was part of the ZANU PF Theme 009 The cited passage by Dowden is loaded, Judgement: the lexical resources manifesto in the 2013 elections. [j]but one striking thing [ap, 1st af] about it employed in this context show the is the claim by its advisor of a white author s feelings regarding imperial establishment that the way they proposals by Dowden. compromise African the sovereignty and independence and to secure Western interests is through sponsorship of higher 010 education. [j] Dowden s claim dovetails with yet another View of African with regards African recent article from Nigeria where Chibundu education shown. Author use of Onuzo wrote to say, among other things, language shows negative attitude that many Africans still overvalue [3rd af] towards Western education which is Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 87 university degrees obtained in the West over seen as harming African interests. those obtained locally not because of any superiority in the Western degree content or the actual performance of graduates but because of propaganda and elitist perceptions [j] which harm the African 011 interest [j]: <ack> When IJGBs (I have just got The linguistic choices by the author back) arrive on African soil, many come here show his attitudes. The author back with a set of Victorian-era uses a word that hinges on being assumptions [j]. The natives are backward derogatory considering its use word has [j]. By natives I mean those who have not historically and in this case this is the lived, worked or studied abroad. The native, word, native . The with his questionable [3 af] degree from a historically been used to refer to rd rundown local university, does (allegedly) blacks by whites (during the colonial not have the skills needed for a modern era mainly) but in this case it is used (neoliberal) business world. 012 in a context in which it is being used by another black person to refer to another black person. Thus the best jobs should go to the IJGBs. Author employs a judgement as a [j] They have not flown South and crossed theme. The judgement is however the Atlantic (Ocean) to be (just) [j 1st af] given from a negative perspective as clerks and graduate trainees. They are here we notice the use of language here to be district officers and bank managers and boarders on mockery of the IJGBs live in the best [1st af] sequestered and a negative attitude towards them. accommodation Where possible; they The attributed material is used to found (white-like) clubs of (only) IJGB display the naivety of the IJGBs and status and limit their contact with the natives shows authorial affect accent, preferably British or American, foreign educated persons. which to a minimum. And often the foreign disapproves of the attitudes of these clings to their speech [ap, j] long after they historical Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) allusion to a 88 The 1951 have graduated from the IJGB status to Rhodesian magazine is used to show <ack> I have been back for a while now. the backwardness of the IJGBs <ack> According to the magazine East thinking and mentality. Authorial Africa and Rhodesia for December 20 1951, affect in this case demonstrated by there was a British House of Commons linguistic choices shows an antidebate on Higher Education for Africans Rhodesian ideology as well as a during which Irene White, <ack>, said: It is dislike for those Africans who only through (higher) education that we (the demonstrate attitudes of superiority British) shall be able to solve the difficulties towards others. This creates an in the multi-racial communities. Until we identity for our author in which we have an equivalent in Africa of the British see him as sympathetic towards the middle class we shall not have the leaders Africa-educated African. The popular (we need) from the African people. What view of Mahoso as a Pan-Africanist the MP meant by multiracial societies were can thus be given weight by this colonies where there were significant white passage. settler minorities controlling African majorities, such as in Kenya, Rhodesia and South Africa[j]. The slow decline of the west since the 1970s has actually intensified attempts by the empire to use the soft [1st af, ap, j] power of education, culture and religion to control Africa. 013 Because of the long [1st af] tradition of Author makes judgement on the western influence in Zimbabwe through tradition of Western influence as colonial and post colonial education, the being long. He however negates the 2013 ZANU PF victory over Britain and influence seeing it as coming to an its MDC project was only one dramatic end as signified by the Zanu PF event in a long history of slow global victory in 2013 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 89 Anglo-Saxon decline. [j] 014 After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Historical allusions Anglo-Saxon ruling elites [j] used NATO, Anglo-Saxons the Pentagon and the rapid expansion [app] tendencies. showing the expansionist Author demonstrates of the European Union to encircle both appreciation of the state of affairs China and Russia. The war against through the detailed account of Yugoslavia was followed by the invasion events thus creating personae for [j]of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003. himself as being a historian. The Libya was added in 2011. It was not until judgement captured in the choice of Syria and Ukraine, in 2013 and 2014 the word invasion shows a negative respectively, that the continuing economic assessment of the war instituted by decline of Anglo-Saxon hegemony began to the Anglo-Saxons against the show also on the geopolitical front. Up to Afghans as the author could have that time, it appeared as if Anglo-Saxon chosen other terms with less negative imperialism could brush aside effects of the connotations e.g. coming into . The decline in its economic base and rely on word employed in this particular political and Dowden infact military aggression to instance demonstrates the displeasure compensate for declining economic power, of the author with the actions of the advised Britain that Anglo-Saxons and hence highlights increasing intervention via education could elements of identity and ideology. compensate for lost military, economic and 015 political clout. In Development Theory and the three The use of affect here demonstrates Worlds, Bjorn Hettne put the challenge for the view of theauthor and may also the West and opportunities for the rest in a partly reflect the views of Hettne neutral [1st af] way. who adopts a neutral stance with regards the subject at hand (Development Theory) author also acknoweledges source of attribution Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 90 016 Hettne wrote: <ack> As he is about to make. Geoffrey The attribution in this papragraph Barrclough put it (in his 1980 paper called serves to substantiate a stance taken Worlds apart: untimely [3rd af] thoughts on previously that the centre of political development and development strategies ), power is shifting (something that the The sources of Western predominance dry author celebrates) from the Western up . That the preconditions for dominance world. This is seen as indicative of are in a process of change will have a deep the irrelevance of the West in terms [3rd af] impact on the power structure within of development. This shift was the centre . First of all the centre (of unanticipated hence the thoughts capitalist economic power) itself is moving expressed are eastward, thus loosening the historical impact is deep untimely yet the association between capitalism and the West [j]. Secondly the new political alignments and conflicts indicate the disintergration of the west itself [j]. 017 Thus rather than being a temporary The use of language here further recession, the economic crisis in the West elaborates the stance of the author to many countries signaled something who could have downplayed more fundamental [j]: a development economic challenges in the West by predicament [1st af], including problems lexical choices in his argument but such as marginalization, deindustrialization chooses rather to depict these as a and permanent unemployment (in the West itself)[j]. 018 crisis thus showing the situation to be dire. This view is compounded by the explicit judgement made in the last two lines of the paragraph Madzimbahwe had an immense [1st af] Elaboration The use of affect shows interest in these developments because it the personal feelings of the author was Russia, China and South Africa who in with Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) regards global economic 91 2008 prevented the UK and US from developments. Again the choice of abusing Chapter Seven of the United nations words in this paragraph shows the Charter and from invading Zimbabwe [j] the author s disposition with regards the way they later invaded Libya in 2011. 019 But even more important [ap] UK and the US as well as towards Russia, China and South Africa. to Agenda Setting- the author gives Zimbabwe in the long term are the audience an aspect to consider as implications of Western economic decline, a important by suggesting that what he decline which makes it clear to interested is writing about is important to observers that, by occupying Afghanistan Zimbabweans. and invading Iraq while seeking to encircle both Russia and China, the West has bitten more than it can chew [j]. The real threat of economic decline has led to the intensification of exploitation within and among Western countries themselves. [j] 020 The <ack> Washington Consensus is dead Acknowledgement followed by [j]. The parading of the Western model as judgement. The judgement contains universal or international best practice finality as it is declarative. has lost credibility. [j] 021 Ironically,[1st af, j] it is precisely because Paragraph opens with author showing the model has lost credibility that the IMF personal feelings and judgements and the World Bank have become more with regards the IMF and World rigid [1st af, j] in their attempts to enforce Bank. old rules on small countries such as Zimbabwe. 022 In this global situation of massive economic Author shows positive affect in Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 92 shifts [ap, j], opportunities for Zimbabwe situation that appears dire and sees and its Zim Asset become obvious [j, 1st af]. opportunity thus showing identity as 023 a positivist and pragmatist. According to Hettne, again: <end> The fact that the three worlds are Elaboration through use of implicit disintergrating and development is endorsement. Author becoming a global and universal problem acknowledgement uses an which [j] makes it probably [3rd af] too important substantiates his view. [3rd af] to be left to a special discipline (such as economics or development studies) with low academic status [ap, j] and that on top of under fire from all sides. Without a special (Third World) case there is no need for a special discipline. The development problem comes closer as world space and national space interweave. It will therefore be a concern for all the social sciences and draw them to each other, if not merge them 024 into one social science. This is the meaning of our call on Judgement- Zimbabwean Zimbabwean intellectuals to return to the intellectuals should adopt a different African model, to come back to the pungwe approach in their way of operating. 025 model for mobilizing ideas into practice [j]. The opportunities the current situation has Judgement- the author shows the presented Zimbabwe fall into at least two opportunities tightly linked categories. [j]. On the socio- Zimbabweans. that are economic front this is the time to dismantle the elitist silo approach to development and set aside forever the endless imitation of the West as representing international best practice . On the education front this is the time to create a revolutionary [j] curriculum Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 93 before synchronized and sequenced from Grade zero to university. 026 The specific [j] problems which prevent us Explicit judgement from coming home to the pungwe approach include the following:  First the majority of Madzimbahwe remain Elaboration of the problems that the blind [j] to the glaring global realization that author sees Zimbabwe as facing. The economics is too important to be left to the paragraph features numerous explicit Eurocentric elite [j] calling itself judgements by the author. These economists. The damage the elitist enclave judgements describe Zimbabweans as has caused can be seen in the relics of being blinded by their Eurocentric recent hoaxes and disasters [j] such as the tendencies. Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP), New Partnership for Africa s Development (Nepad), African Peer Review mechanism, African Capacity Building Foundation and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa.  Second, President Robert Mugabe s call Elaboration: the author makes a for a new science and technology judgement that President Mugabe s curriculum has been misunderstood and call has been misinterpreted. misinterpreted [j] to mean the mere Authorial affect shown in paragraph escalation and intensification of the as author argues that the monistic monistic silo approach to science and approach is wrong. technology which has spawned the current failures [j]. This monistic approach is based on wrong [j, 1st af] definitions of science and technology which confuse scientism with science and insist on creating a monistic science stream of pupils who are encouraged to separate themselves from Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 94 students in other disciplines too early in the education process. Such early separation and isolation creates a separated and alienated stream of youngsters [j] who are technicist and clearly incompetent [j, ap] in relation to the macro-economy and the macro-society and culture in which they must serve and prove themselves. The value chain linking the laboratory to the workshop, farm or factory is neither determined nor controlled by the researcher or experimental scientist. That is why under capitalism most scientists and technicians are consultants companies.[j]. scientific production paid for The employees or incorporation of organized by breakthroughs lines is conglomerate into particular entrepreneurs with money to take risks in trying new concepts and new technologies. This is a social and historical process involving many cooperating players other than the scientist or technician.  Third, Zim Asset has already fallen victim Judgement- three judgements and of bureaucrats [j] who use their control on single instance of affect in which the State coffers to organize selective [j] and author talks of how Zim-Asset exclusive [j] workshops to intensify the silo according to him is failing because o approach to science and technology bureaucracy and selectivity which he education which has been adopted from the (the author) pins on education. British and has been pursued here religiously [1 af] for at the last 34 years. st Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 95 027 The question Madzimbahwe have to ask is Dialogic tone in which the author this: What can these bureaucrats teach engages audience and asks them society about productivity when they question and suggests a line of themselves have been spending 70 to 90 thinking that the audience should percent of the Government s budget on follow in trying to answer that salaries which have to be paid in foreign questions. currency and have accumulated massive unpaid arrears? As far as what is needed for the emergence of a new African owned and controlled economy in Zimbabwe, economics for Zim Asset cannot be limited to what is known by persons certified with degrees in Economics; [j] science for Zim Asset cannot be limited to what is known by persons certified with higher degrees in science, technology cannot be limited to what is known by persons certified with BTech and M-Tech diplomas. These are important and even critical but only as catalysts for a much broader and more popular movement and mobilization in science and technology. Scientism is not science. Technicism is not technology. 028 Legalism is not living law. A look at the new constitution of the Judgement and Elaboration- the new Republic of Zimbabwe shows that not only constitution seen as being an obstacle will it prove to be one of the key obstacles for Zim-Asset s of Zim Asset [j] but also that the drafters implementation. The successful judgement returned to their legalistic silos [j, ap] soon follows the theme of the article that after the Constitutional outreach which had the constitution is not in line with the been meant to base our supreme law upon economic situation in Zimbabwe. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 96 the pungwe foundation. The lawyers forgot the original purpose of the outreach. They also ignored the significance of research already done on the matter of living African law [j] as demonstrated, for instance by the authors of Pursuing Grounded Theory in Law: South-North Experiences in Developing Women s Law, 029 1998. There the authors pointed out, among other Endorsement- the attributed material things, that: <end> It has to be appreciated serves to endorse the views of the that approaches that suggest that law can be writer that the law needs to take into explored and captured from among the cognizance the cultural beliefs of people based on evidence of consistent and indigenous people. recognized practices, (remain) foreign to the Western trained legal mind. Thus the gateways that permit the leading evidence of changing customs and practices and how that evidence must be led, have to be very carefully researched if such arguments are to 030 have any chance of success. In a typical linear and silo fashion,[j] Mr. Judgement. Author presents White Eric Bloch featured in both The Herald and Zimbabwean economist, Eric Bloch ZBC TV reports was quoted as saying: 031 and shows him as acting in a typical manner that he (the author) expects of a certain group of people. <ack> We don t need several hundred Acknowledgementadditional political scientists, the attributed socio- material is used t show the author s economists, linguists, holders of general position with regards Bloch as valid degrees in the arts and the like. There are from the latter s utterances. increasingly enormous Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) numbers of 97 032 unemployed university graduates. [j] The Rhodesian grievance [j] is that social Judgement. Bloch referred to as science and arts subjects to date have being Rhodesian and having along been the main vehicles for attempts to with others, grievances against the develop a revolutionary African ethos [j] education of the African. Mahoso to underpin and drive African education. approaches a subject that Bloch approaches from an economist s perspective from a racial perspective. The description of the economist as a Rhodesian may be seen as racial 033 discrimation. Therefore abolishing the social science and Judgement- the judgements made in arts admissions would suit the Rhodesians this instance are an attack on a group and their Anglo-Saxon sponsors,[j] since Mahoso identifies as Rhodesians that would leave the African graduates (white Zimbabweans who used to completely open to Western intellectual hold positions of power before and ideological direction and domination. independence). 034 [j] African graduates would remain superior Judgement employed as conclusion. border jumpers [j] from whom the West would pick and employ the brightest.[j] 4.4.3 Appraisal and Textual Analysis The article is full of numerous judgements and these are seen from the outset where we see the author making an explicit judgement in the first paragraph. This may be seen as a form of stancetaking. The linguistic choices made by the author suggest an identity of our author as a revolutionary who is strongly opposed to civil servants who fall into a clique of elites within higher education. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 98 Though the author himself is highly educated as demonstrated by his superior use of language, he tries to identify with the general populace of the uneducated. Interestingly though he is an academic doctor, Mahoso skips the title, Doctor in his byline which may be seen as an attempt to identify with a particular audience. Mahoso in following the scholarly genre employs acknowledgements in his argumentation, substantiating his judgements by referring to leading academics like Mbeki who is a known PanAfricanist. By such association the author augments the personae of a Pan-Africanist scholar. The acknowledged material endorses Mahoso s stance as well as providing the theme for the article. The lexical choice in paragraph six is interesting as it speaks of the relationship that the author believes exists between the African and the European continent. The relationship is seen as industrial and one of exploitation. A European education is seen in this case as one that controls the African as indicated through the use of the word, mortgaged . Working from such deductions, Mahoso describes the article as revealing as it endorses his stance that a Western education serves to exploit the African. Further attributed material is used to substantiate the position by Mahoso and his use of language shows a loathing for the capitalist system. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 99 Chapter 5 Conclusion and Summary 5.1 Introduction The research has up to this point established that there is an interpersonal relationship that exists between the opinion columnist and his audience. If this relationship were to be captured diagrammatically then a model such as that proposed by Osgood and Schramm in their Dialogical model would be seen as best illustrating this. The Dialogical Model designed by Osgood illustrating and the Schramm (1964) Communication process in which there is interpersonal interaction between interlocutors The notion of the interpersonal metafunction that has been captured by M. A. K. Halliday in the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory is highly visible in the rhetorical structure of the Opinion column. This is so through the dialogical tone employed by the writer of the opinion column. 5.2 Main Findings The researcher proposed a number of questions that were deemed important for this current study in the outset. This section will attempt to see how these questions have been answered by this study. It is therefore imperative that we revisit the questions posed in the Aims and Objectives section. These questions were: Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 100  How do opinion authors use linguistic resources to create identities and ideologies for  How can we use the resources of the theory of Appraisal to analyse literary pieces which  What rhetorical patterns can be noted in Opinion columns?  others and themselves? are aimed at convincing their target audiences? Is it possible to establish a systemic pattern of argumentation in written media discourse? The following observations were made from the study;  The lack of title in the byline creates personae for the author who is an academic Doctor but the manner in which this title is omitted may be seen as a way of trying to create an identity that does not distance the writer from his audience.  In the first article used for this research the author uses a question for the title (Is it time for the dollar to return?). By so doing, the author tackles an academic question and therefore takes on the personae of an academic.  The author uses implicit acknowledgement in the introductory paragraph of the first article by showing that states are said to be powerless indicated by the word alleged . The linguistic resources used here implicitly show attitudinal positions of the author as we deduce that the author appears to disbelieve the idea that the nations are really powerless. The use of implicit acknowledgements is a rhetorical move that is characteristic of the academic genre and the opinion column being part of the media genre, particularly the Op-Ed genre shares a similarity with the Academic paper in the manner it employs acknowledgements. Acknowledgements thus feature a lot in Opinion columns and through these we are able to make a number of deductions as to the identities that the author creates for himself and others. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 101 It is therefore the inference of this researcher that attitudinal positioning may be done through the manner that an author employs acknowledgements as has been demonstrated in the Tafataona Mahoso articles. The structural arrangement in which the Opinion author allows the proliferation of attributed (explicit or implicit) material as has been observed by Jillian (2011 quoted in Sabao, 2013:322) allows for the authorial evaluations through strategic impersonalisations. This, I opine, allows for academic sympathy where even if one does not particularly like the personae of the opinion author they are forced to agree with the particular stance taken given the supposedly popular support evinced through the attributed material. In line with this argument, it has been established through this research that Mahoso came under a lot of fire, an aspect he acknowledges in a series of articles, for his calls to have the Zimbabwean dollar return as he was seen as not being an economist. Interestingly, Mahoso won over a number of converts among them Happiness Zengeni (An Argument for Economics- published by The Sunday Mail, January 31, 2014) and Eddie Cross (Cross Takes on Mahoso- published by The Sunday Mail, July 31, 2014) in which economists who at some point were in disagreement with the Opinion column buy into his argument using attributed material from the former s articles. Whereas the call has been for Mahoso to leave Economics to Economists, through the attributions Mahoso creates personae for himself as an Academic of note and even as an Economist to some degree.  As with all writing in the print media, the opinion column follows a particular generic structure that is widely accepted and expected of any such writing and one notices the length of the Opinion article as being one pronounced feature. As has already been established in this study (when Genre was discussed) participants within a particular genre gate-keep and agree as to conventions that are acceptable to that particular class of text. In the case of Opinion columns there is a generic structure that is Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 102 apparent. Authors like Mahoso start off by making a proposition, explicitly or otherwise, and these act as the theme of the article as a whole. The theme is then followed by the rheme in which arguments are advanced for or against certain positions. The move structure employed in the Mahoso essays/columns is akin to that seen in the academic essay and the author thus shows himself to be an academic through such a presentation style. Propositions are made in most opinion articles and these are followed through with a lot of evidence meant to substantiate such propositions. In the case of the academic writing the writer moves from a thesis statement and goes on to explain the basis of such a view. The thesis statement is what constitutes the theme in the Opinion column whereas the rest of the argument will be the rheme. In cases, it was noticed how the opinion author may even draw on personal experience to create empathy for self and their particular position. In one article used for this study, Mahoso starts off by bemoaning how he was a lone voice calling for the return of the Zimbabwean dollar.  The manner in which Mahoso code switches from using the medium used by the particular publications he writes for (English) to Shona by constantly referring to his audience as MaDzimbahwe shows that he is communicating to a particular audience and this may also be seen as a way of creating an identity for both the author and his audience. Instances of code switching are noted particularly in the second article in paragraphs 14 and 32. In paragraph 14 Mahoso talks of the demand for Zimbabwe neupfumi hwayo hwose as coming from the peasants and children of peasants . Here, Mahoso borrows lyrics from a popular liberation war song popularized by Chinx Chingaira. As such those who enjoy the music of Chingaira identify with the issues that Mahoso is dealing with in this particular article. The fact that the words are borrowed from a liberation war song is in itself important as there is the use of pathos which aspect can be seen as an indirect use of elements of Appraisal. There is the use of graduation when Mahoso talks of wanting Zimbabwe and all its wealth ( hupfumi Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) hwose ). 103 In talking of how important being humane is Mahoso deliberately chooses to talk instead of unhu/ubuntu (in paragraph 06 of the second article) and does not bother to translate for his audience. This implies that Mahoso identifies his audience as being specific and as having an appreciation of the vernacular terms that he employs. The switching of codes by Mahoso not only narrows the social distance between the columnist and his audience, thus strengthening the interpersonal relationship between the author and the audience.  Through the use of affectives (terms and words which demonstrate the feelings and thoughts of the author) a number of identities were demonstrated by the author. In the first article for instance the author in the introduction talked of a reaction he describes as being euphoria and this word in essence captures his negative feelings. The Opinion articles by Mahoso are full of such terms. In just one sentence (paragraph 001 of article 1) we witness three instances of affect and two of judgement before the same sentence moves on to employ implicitly attributed material. Though the author does not in this instance take an explicit stance, we deduce from the nature of the affectives that his attitude towards liberalism is negative. As such it becomes easy to extract identities and ideologies thereafter. The opinion author wants to express thoughts and feelings that he or she believes should be heard and sympathized with and as such it comes as no surprise that they should use emotive language as has been seen in the articles employed for this study. The emotive language is in the form of adjectives. The author graduates verbal phrases as in the following example from paragraph 003 of the first article, real [Judgement] barrier to Canada s exercise of its full [graduation + judgement] freedom In this case the author utilizes Appraisal as a means to show attitude and feelings which then expose identity and ideology. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 104 With the articles utilized for this study being opinion columns, the author takes a stance or a number of these and these stances may be uncovered through the use of the Appraisal framework for in each instances where we witness the author making judgements we are positioned not only to establish identity and thought patterns of those making judgement but of those against whom such is being made.  The rhetorical structure of the Opinion column, it has been established follows the same pattern as the Academic article in terms of the way the authors present their arguments. The Opinion columnist starts off by presenting an issue he or she sees as problematic and thereafter goes on discuss this issue exposing a variety of views in existence. Thereafter they expose their particular stance and forward evidence for such a position. 5.3 Contribution of Study This study has, as was proposed in the Introductory chapter, sought to make a contribution to literature on the practical uses of the SFL theory particularly resources of Appraisal. Such contribution has been in the manner that the study has shown how we can establish identities and ideologies of writers (particularly opinion writers) from the text they put on paper. Seeing as it that SFL is a theory in its infancy the study has obviously added to literature on it and will help other scholars realize the worth of the theory. Such recognition, it is hoped, will garner popularity for the theory. Another contribution inherent in this study is on how individuals can become better interlocutors once they become knowledgeable on the effect of the resources of Appraisal that they frequently use in their communication. The study has since established the generic characteristics of Opinion columns and as such has hopefully added to literature on what elements are expected to feature in Opinion columns and how teachers of rhetoric may equip their students to be better placed to present themselves. While the study did not do a contrastive analysis between the Op-Ed genre and other genres within the print media, it is hoped that by simply exposing the salient featuresof Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 105 this type of article, the study has contributed to studies in the difference between the Op-Ed and other print media genres. 5.4 Suggestions and Recommendations This study was aimed at showing how we can use the SFL theory (particularly the framework of Appraisal) to establish identity as well as ideology in opinion columns and this is only part of what the theory can be used for. There are numerous other aspects that may be uncovered using the framework such as notions of attitude. Because the study employed articles by a specific opinion columnist there may be deviations should a similar study be done using other opinion columnists. Comparative researches are also possible and recommended and these could take the form of a comparison between the uses of Appraisal resources by different opinion columnists who may also emanate from different media houses. Such a study would then establish if there is a pattern that columnists in this genre follow as they express themselves through the public forum they are granted. 5.5 Summary This research has attempted to show how Opinion columns utilize resources of Appraisal in the creation of identity as well as ideology. It has been seen that in the opinion writer is in most cases someone pursuing a particular agenda and as such will try what they can to use language in such a manner that whoever reads what they write will be swayed into accepting their viewpoint. Another finding of this study has been the fact that the opinion author has an interpersonal relationship that they establish with their audience and they write cognizant of this fact and hence will tend to use language in cases in a manipulative way. The generic tenets of the opinion column also became apparent in the course of this study and similarities were noted between the genre and academic writing which observation was Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 106 attributed to the notion that the opinion columnist is essentially an academic who in this case worries about factors such as objectivity. Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 107 References Adeoye A. O. 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Africa Research Institute Ideology and Discourse: A Multidisciplinary Approach accessed from www.discourses.org Appraisal: An Overview. Available at: http://www.grammatics.com/ Website References https://www.google.co.zw/search?q=circular+transactional+models+of+communication Accessed 21/10/2014 at 0946AM https://www.sofwanunnes.files.wordpress.com/ Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) / accessed 19/09/2014 @ 02:55am ) 112 Email Communication granting permission to use Articles by Tafataona Mahoso. Appendix 1 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 113 Tendai O. Chikara MAAEL (2014) 114